Paper #2.
(and... I'm still learning how to do this type of paper.)
 |
Taylor Speer-Sims
Women's History Class
University of Nebraska-Kearney
December 11, 2013
There are many
similarities between the numerous works of the required readings and those that
were personal choices. Gender and femininity held positions of power and
subordination. Seen through a man’s view, which created the ideal feminine
women. Women’s bodies have been symbols used for, and sanctioned by, the
government and marketing purposes. Homemakers, mothers, and sexual objects were
typical roles. Some may say otherwise, but many women held power by cementing
their femininity in the real world. In each piece presented women were active
participants who helped to create American history.
Pin-ups were used
as propaganda ploys, argued Dr. Robert B Westbrook in his work "'I Want a
Girl, Just Like the Girl that Married Harry James': American Women and the
Problem of Political Obligation in World War II." Westbrook
discussed the idea that a liberal state protects citizens’ natural rights, but
also asks for political obligations, which were not just private but also
social by race and/or gender. Westbrook argued pin-ups were individual
demonstrations of traditional sexual and racial roles. Sanctioned by the state
and revered by both men and women, pin-ups were not just masturbatory objects,
but were the idealization of home. Misogynistic themes throughout the paper
indicated that women’s reality was to germinate men’s illusions. In fact, it
was her duty to give American men something worth fighting for, and
according to Westbrook, the “women themselves participated in the
mobilization.”[1]
Westbrook has an
extensive background and experience to prove his argument. He has a B.A. from
Yale University with distinctions in history. His Ph.D. in history is from
Stanford University and teaches multiple history courses at the University of
Rochester. He has authored many other related books and articles.[2]
Even though his paper was a joy to read, his bias short sighted his proof.
Westbrook wrote a contradiction to his argument within his notes where he
stated
I do not mean to imply here that Betty Grable served
in any direct way as a motivation for combat… studies of men in combat have
shown, most soldiers were motivated to fight less by ideology than by such
consideration as loyalty to their buddies… and sheer survival.”[3]
Joan W. Scott’s
perspective in “Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis” was not on
men, but “gender as a tool of analysis.”[4]
Scott argued gender should be its own category of analysis, and when
reexamined, women’s history will redefine and enlarge “traditional notions of
historical significance, to encompass personal, subjective experience as well
as public and political activities.”[5] Scott’s historiography said that gender
constructs have different theories and may or may not be fixed according to
society. Scott related gender constructs, including sexuality and reproduction,
to power inequality. She also said that society and politics constructed
gender, and the reverse was also true: “Gender is [the] constitutive element of
social relationships… and is the primary way of signifying relationships of
power.”[6]
Scott’s
credentials and argument in gender, society, and politics has a complete and
sound platform. Scott is world renown, a multiple award winner, and historian.
She specializes in feminist history, gender theory, and power. She is also
interested in the “relation between discourse and experience, and the role and
practice of historians.”[7]
Scott found fault with Marxist feminism, psychoanalytical theory, and
patriarchy, yet she still included positives and negatives, which gave a
complete, yet enlightened, argument.
Preferring
Capitalism to Communism is one focus of Elaine Tyler May’s argument in Homeward
Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era. May’s main theme was the
connection of familial status, the father as the breadwinner, the mother as
home keeper and mother, with the idea of national security within the Cold War
era. If any of these family members were week, then the strength of America was
insecure and vulnerable to homosexuality and Communism (i.e. Red Scare,
Lavender Scare, and “Momism.”) May’s work used a combination of thematic and
chronological methods. May presented the idea that the 1950’s were unusual in
U.S. history. Women’s position had regressed from the higher paying positions
they had during the war, to the social idea of housewives being the pinnacle of
their goals. Women’s happiness and self worth were based upon their domestic
consumerism, and how clean their house was. May said, “experts called upon
women to embrace domesticity in service to the nation.”[8]
Women who did not follow this manuscript were considered masculine, according
to May, just as Gerda Lerner and Jean H. Baker noted.[9]
May has an
extensive background in gender, sexuality, domestic culture and politics with
issues that intersect with consumerism and the Cold War era. Her Ph.D. is in
United States History, from the University of California, Los Angeles. She is a
well-respected professor at University of Minnesota. She has many publications
on modern women’s history.[10]
The only negative was that she included only the white middle-class, but May
wrote in a way that made her book on gender in the Cold War era easy to read.
Chana Kai Lee
wrote about Hamer’s growth from poverty to civil rights activist, and a story
of race, gender, and violence. Hamer, was discriminated based on an
“interlocking nature of oppression” and had been an outsider in every group
that she was in.[11] As Scott
wrote on the relationship of power and gender, Hamer was influenced by more
than just her gender. Power and politics were relational with all demographics
and subcultures in respects to domination and subordination.[12]
Lee said “Hamer drew strength and inspiration from poverty and racism and went
on to become one of the most respected leaders of her day.”[13]
Unlike May’s idea of womanhood, Hamer was a strong workingwoman who was not a
white middle-class, stay at home, motherly, domestic goddess. Lee’s view on
Hamer was that even though she was abused and mistreated, she refused to be
dismissed, similar to Truth.
Chana Kai Lee
received several awards for her chronologically organized book. The work
won the Willie Lee Rose Prize by the Southern Association of Women Historians
and the Letitia Woods Brown Memorial Book Prize by the Association of Black
Women Historians. She has a Ph.D. from UCLA, and is an Associate Professor of
History and Women’s Studies at the University of Georgia. Her research and
teaching interests include African American, gender & sexuality, United
States 19th and 20th centuries, and women’s histories.[14]
Lee’s biography on Hamer has become the “definitive biography of one of the
most important civil rights activists of the twentieth century.”[15]
Women’s activism
has been around for quite a while, and so Sara M. Evans broke down and
period-ized these participation movements into “waves.” While sectioning
made it easy to study, it also described the ebb and flow of the movement
within American society. She argued that “the brilliant creativity and
longevity of feminism in the late twentieth century is grounded in the
breathtaking claim that personal is political.”[16]
Westbrook emphasized the idea that politics were personal, and Evans indicated
that the second wave was more “personal is political.”[17]
This argument was shown through Evan’s thematic system of interpretation and
dissection of events. So, even with the long twentieth century, Evans argued
that the women of the second wave did not look at the past; they believed
themselves to be the first women to march and fight for equal rights.
Therefore, they did not build upon the experience of the first wave, but
instead found themselves going in circles and fighting amongst the ranks.
Evans specializes
in Twentieth Century Women’s Studies, Gender Analysis, Family History, American
Women’s History, and Social History. She has won numerous awards and is a
distinguished university professor at the University of Minnesota.[18]
Evans has been an influential historian on women throughout the United States,
as well as at U. of M. She assisted in the creation of the Women’s History and
Feminist Studies there. She donated thousands of research documents and
recordings to the university on her retirement.[19]
In the book From
Out of the Shadows: Mexican Women in Twentieth-Century America by Vicki L.
Ruiz, women of Hispanic ancestry were brought “out of the shadows” by utilizing
oral history as the main source of research and by claiming public space. She
said “the power of telling stories long ignored or silenced… persists despite a
spate of award-winning books and essays over the past twenty years.”[20]
Ruiz argued that Hispanic women have made history while they fought against
deportation, repatriation, violence, poverty, and discrimination. Latina activists have made differences for
themselves and of their male counterparts. Mexican American women took the lead
for their families, and still were “agents of change.” Ruiz maintained that the
paradigm of separate spheres did not work with Hispanics; these women did
everything.
Vicki L. Ruiz is a
Hispanic writer, Dean of the School of Humanities, and a professor of history
and Chicano/Latino Studies at the University of California, Irvine. Ruiz has
been a member of many academic organizations and book wards.[21]
Oral history is a consistent source of
research for her as she said that the history at home did not match the history
at school.[22] She wrote
this work in chronological order within each topic of her thematic structure.
Ruiz was instrumental in bringing Latina history into the light, instead of
being ignored or forgotten in immigration and Women’s History in a very
interesting and compelling manner.
“The ‘Crisis’
Cover Girl: Lena Horne, the NAACP, and Representations of African American
Femininity, 1941-1945” by Megan E. Williams brought the complexity of minority
women as cover girls into focus. Williams’ argument was that the femininity of
African American women in the war years was based upon the marketing strategy of
magazines, which used light-skinned women as their ideal. Williams primarily
based her work on the Crisis, which was one of the largest selling
African American magazines during this period. This magazine portrayed woman as
“inactive glamour girls,” and used skin color “as an indicator of middle-class
status among African Americans.”[23] Williams said that magazines preferred
headshots of well-dressed, light-skinned African American women who
were college-educated ladies, beauty-contest winners, soldiers’ wives, or
celebrated entertainers, over photographs of dark-skinned women engaged in
war-production work.[24]
This seems in line with Westbrook’s
argument, and had the argument of the triple discrimination factor of Hamer and
the Hispanic women. Williams agreed that white women as pin-ups were used to
show white idealism, just as Westbrook noted. She went on to say that unlike
the white counterpart, the black pin-up was used to show “victory over racism,”
which was part of “victory over fascism.”[25]
Pin-ups and cover
girls in this paper idealized femininity, yet the organization and title are
somewhat off because Horne was only a section of the paper. The paper was
written chronologically and gave a great deal of information on the Crisis
and perceptions of African American femininity. Horne’s attributes fit in
perfectly with the ideal of black femininity with the exception that she was
strong enough to be able to push back against the idea of her being NAACP and
the “Crisis” ideal by saying “all right, I’m a symbol. But I’m a person too.”[26]
Perhaps one of the reasons that there was less information on Lena Horne than
the title indicates is that Megan Williams wrote her Ph.D. dissertation on this
lady at the University of Kansas, where she has also taught Women’s and
American Studies.[27] It was certainly an interesting read, but
Williams could have written more on Lena Horne, the singer, film actress, and
activist to make her title more accurate.
Caroline Brown
wrote on two movies representing feminine and minority characterization themes
in her paper, “The Representation of the Indigenous Other in ‘Daughters of the
Dust’ and ‘The Piano.” Brown mentioned
that there were similarities and differences within these two woman produced
films. Brown’s argument was that both films used the traditional female
subordination and ethnocentric ideologies in an “unconventional narrative.”[28]
Brown’s idea of racial and sexual positioning “are translated in terms of those
who are typically identified as the possessors of power, whites and men,
usually white men,” just as argued in Lee and Ruiz.[29]
Brown ‘s piece on racial and gender vulnerability, brought up “rebellious
femininity of a lone white woman in a hostile, misogynistic, and alienating
foreign culture,” which is the same as in Ruiz, with Hispanic women in a white
world.[30]
Brown argued that the natives within both films were feminized as they were
placed in sexualized subordinate positions. In Daughters of the Dust, the
native was unable to speak and had long flowing hair. Brown argued that in the
Piano, the natives could speak, but were childlike and placed in the
background, similar to where Ruiz said the Latinas were placed in history.
Caroline Brown is
an Assistant Professor in English at the University of Massachusetts Boston. She
specializes in Women’s Studies and twentieth-century American literature and
African Diaspora.[31]
Brown’s work has been featured in many university feminist profiles and quoted
in feminist websites. While not a history professor, she has still made an impact
on Women’s History. This was provoking and a great comparative piece within her
study.
The piece from
Janell Hobson, “Viewing in the Dark: Toward a Black Feminist Approach to Film”
introduced more than just the otherness of Brown’s piece. Hobson brought out
more than physicality in this work. She went further than Williams by saying
that black women’s bodies in film may hold the “Jezebel or tragic mulatto, but
there is also displeasure in such cases as grotesque mammies and Sapphires.”[32]
Hobson agreed with Brown and Ruiz by saying that black women were usually in
the background. She agreed with Westbrook and Williams that female characters
in film are there for the pleasure of men, if they were seen at all. Hobson
went on to say, “black female voice as the singers [in movies may] provide the
emotional and ‘soulful’ track of the narrative of the white male protagonist in
search of his soul.”[33]
Because the singers weren’t seen, it
Further implies how the black woman’s [non]
presence ensures the identity of white masculinity. Her invisible blackness
signifies in polarity with his visible whiteness… as his racial and sexual
‘other.’ She symbolizes what is most foreign to him… Such contrast further
reflects his internal struggles and the contradictions of his hegemonic status.
Janell Hobson
stylizes herself as “scholar, writer, educator, and critic.”[34]
She is an Associate Professor of Women’s Studies at the University at Albany,
State University of New York. Hobson, and has a Ph.D. in Women’s Studies from
Emory University. She has authored two books and many articles on racism and
gender. Her thematic film piece is fantastic and this author highly recommends
it.
Ann Kaplan wrote
not just on women seen or heard in film, but also on women working on the
films, and included discussion on college courses of study on her subject.
Kaplan’s point that film was a heavily male dominated field correlated with the
two previous authors, as well as the idea that the portrayal of women was
“probably a result of traditional sex-role typing.”[35]
Kaplan went further by saying that the relationship of film and women varied
“from period to period, and depends on the style [of the] director.”[36]
Kaplan told her audience that studying films is necessary and should be
pursued, similar to Scott’s argument. She agreed with May that women’s
traditional role has been in the home setting. Women in film have been
consistently viewed through male eyes wrote Kaplan, just as many of the above
authors.
Coming from a
different field, the British Film Institute, Dr. Ann Kaplan came from is an
Assistant Professor at the University College of Rutgers University. She
teaches women and film, and was the initiator and developer of the program
there. She has also written other articles on the subject as well as a book
entitled Women and Film: Both Sides of the Camera. Her paper was
somewhat choppy, but gave a good message, and showed a thorough knowledge of
the subject.
The message of
“Sex as a Weapon: Feminist Rock Music Videos” was not so obvious a title for the
next article. Robin Roberts used the title of Pat Benatar’s song “Sex as a
Weapon” within her own title possibly for recognition by the reader. It was
understandable, but only after reading the entire paper (or perhaps a Pat
Benatar fanatic might have known?). The document was more about how women
artists used their sexuality for their own benefit and power. This was
different than the film authors noted. However, there was certainly some
agreement with Westbrook and minimally by Brown. Roberts went further by saying
that this art form was a complex interaction of the artist with the viewer,
whether man or woman. Roberts gave three female performers (Tina Turner, Janet
Jackson and Pat Benatar) as examples, but her thought provoking discourse
brought to mind others within the same context, such as TLC, Madonna, and Lady
Gaga.
Roberts is Dean of
Fulbright College in Fayetteville, Arkansas. She was previously at Louisiana
State University where she taught English and Women’s and Gender Studies. She
has authored five books, “dozens of articles and more than seventy-five
papers.”[37]
Ratemyprofessor.com rated her at an average of 3.6, where one student said that
she “knows her stuff.”[38] This was evident in Robert’s document,
although it was completely biased and should have included some opposing
videos.
The papers and books presented have all included
many of the same aspects. Many of the authors spoke of
femininity and its position with power and subordination. Portraits of women through photographs and
movies have been seen through men’s eyes and arguably through women’s as well. The typical portrayal of
women was usually the ideal of being a housewife, mother, and sex symbol. Some women have taken their
power back to create themselves. Women were not just idol objects, but were participatory in their
representation and in history.
femininity and its position with power and subordination. Portraits of women through photographs and
movies have been seen through men’s eyes and arguably through women’s as well. The typical portrayal of
women was usually the ideal of being a housewife, mother, and sex symbol. Some women have taken their
power back to create themselves. Women were not just idol objects, but were participatory in their
representation and in history.
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[1] Robert B. Westbrook, "'I Want a Girl, Just Like the Girl that
Married Harry James': American Women and the Problem of Political Obligation in
World War II," American Quarterly 42:4 (December 1990), 587-614.
http://blackboard.unk.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-1760164-dt-content-rid-5814549_2/courses/2013FHIST84806/Westbrook%20article.pdf
(accessed December 11, 2013)
[2] Robert B.
Westbrook, “CV,” (New York: University of Rochester, 2013)
http://www.rochester.edu/College/HIS/faculty/westbrook_robert/assets/pdf/westbrook_cv.pdf
(accessed December 11, 2013)
[3] Ibid.
[4] Linda Van
Ingen, “Introduction” in “Module 9 & Paper #1: Women in World War II.” In Blackboard
for class. http://blackboard.unk.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab_tab_
group_id=_2_1&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute%2Flauncher%3Ftype%3DCourse%26id%3D_90613_1%26url%3D
(accessed December 12, 2013)
[5] Joan W. Scott, "Gender: A Useful Category of Historical
Analysis," The American Historical Review 91:5 (December 1986),
1053-1075. http://blackboard.unk.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-1760164-dt-content-rid-5814548_2/courses/2013FHIST84806/Joan%20Scott%20article.pdf
(accessed December 11, 2013)
[6] Ibid.
[7] Sarah
Sussman, “Joan W. Scott” (Stanford, Stanford University Libraries, 2007.)
http://prelectur.stanford.edu/lecturers/scott/ (accessed December 11, 2013)
[8] Elaine Tyler
May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era, ( New York:
Perseus Books Group, 2008)
[9] Gerda
Lerner, The Grimke’ Sisters From South Carolina: Pioneers for Woman’s Rights
and Abolition. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 110.; Jean H.
Baker, Sisters: The Lives of America’s Suffragists. (New York: Hill and
Wang, 2005), 75.
[10] College of
Liberal Arts, “Elaine T. May,” quoted in “American Studies,” University of
Minnesota (2012)
http://americanstudies.umn.edu/people/profile.php?UID=mayxx002 (accessed
December 12, 2013)
[11] Linda Van
Ingen, “Introduction” in “Module 11: Women in Civil Rights Movement.” In
Blackboard for class.
http://blackboard.unk.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab_tab_
group_id=_2_1&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute%2Flauncher%3Ftype%3DCourse%26id%3D_90613_1%26url%3D
(accessed December 12, 2013)
[12] Chana Kai
Lee, For Freedom’s Sake: The Life of Fannie Lou Hamer. (Urbana:
University of Illinois Press, 1999.),
[13] Ibid, ix.
[14] Franklin
College of Arts & Sciences, Department of History, “Chana Kai Lee” quoted in “People” The
University of Georgia. (n.d.)
http://history.uga.edu/people/people.php?page=19 (accessed December 12, 2013).
[15] Lee, back
cover.
[16] Westbrook;
Sara M. Evans, Tidal Wave: How Women Changed America at Century’s End.
(New York: Free Press, 2003), 4.
[17] Ibid.
[18] College of
Liberal Arts, “Sara M. Evans,” quoted in “Department of History,” University
of Minnesota, (2013.) http://www.hist.umn.edu/people/profile.php?UID=s-evan
(accessed December 12, 2013)
[19] Linda Van
Ingen, “Introduction: Sara M. Evans, Tidal Wave: How Women Changed America
at Century’s End. (2003).” Quoted in “Module 12: Feminist Movement,”
in Blackboard for class.
(2013)http://blackboard.unk.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab_tab_group_id=_2_1&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute%2Flauncher%3Ftype%3DCourse%26id%3D_90613_1%26url%3D
(accessed December 12, 2013)
[20] Vicki L.
Ruiz, From Out of the Shadows: Mexican Women in Twentieth-Century America:
Tenth Anniversary Ed. Kindle Edition, (New York: Oxford University Press,
2008), Afterward.
[21] “Faculty
Profile,” University of California, Irvine. (2007)
ttp://www.faculty.uci.edu//profile.cfm?faculty_id=5302 (accessed December 12,
2013)
[22]
From Out of the Shadows, xii-xiv.
[23] Megan E.
Williams, “The ‘Crisis’ Cover Girl: Lena Horne, the NAACP, and Representations
of African American Femininity, 1941-1945,” Ohio State University Press
as quoted in American Periodicals, Vol. 16, No. 2, (2006), 200-218. in JSTOR.
(2013) (accessed December 12, 2013).
[24] Ibid.
[25] Ibid.
[26] Lena Horne
in Ibid.
[27] Megan E.
Williams, “Biography” Meganewilliams.com (2012) (accessed December 12, 2013)
[28] Caroline
Brown “The Representation of the Indigenous Other in ‘Daughters of the Dust’
and ‘The Piano.” The Johns Hopkins
University Press, as quoted in NWSA Journal, Vol. 15, No. 1 (2003),
1-19.in JSTOR (accessed December 12, 2013).
[29] Ibid.
[30] Ibid.
[31] Ibid.
[32] Janell
Hobson, “Viewing in the Dark: Toward a Black Feminist Approach to Film,” The
Feminist Press at the City University of New York, as quoted in Women’s
Studies Quarterly, Vol. 30, No. ½, Looking Across the Lens: Women’s Studies
and Film (Spring – Summer, 2002), 45-59. in JSTOR. (accessed December
12, 2013).
[33] Ibid.
[34] Janell
Hobson, “C.V.” JanellHobson.com . N.d. (accessed December 12, 2013)
[35] Ann Kaplan,
“The Feminist Perspective in Film Studies,” University of Illinois Press,
Journal of the University Film Association, Vol. 26, No. ½, Women in Film,
(1974), 5, 18-20, 22. in JSTOR. (2013), (accessed December 12, 2013)
[36] Ibid.
[37] Sharon
Gaber and Steve Voorhies, “Roberts Named Dean of Fulbright College,” University
of Arkansas Newswire, (2011)
http://newswire.uark.edu/articles/15882/roberts-named-dean-of-fulbright-college
(accessed December 12, 2013)
[38] Eng 7201,
“Robin Roberts” (2006) http://www.ratemyprofessors.com/ShowRatings.jsp?tid=563208
(accessed December 12, 2013)
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