My Accepted Thesis Prospectus

The Gentility in Property

For 18^th Century Colonial and New Republic American Elite

Taylor Speer-Sims

HIST89401: Introduction to Thesis

Dr. Douglas Biggs

April 17, 2014

Thesis Advisor: Dr. Jinny Turman

ABSTRACT

Property and housing meant more than just a living location for the American gentry during the long eighteenth century. The growth in large houses in America was similar to the growth of large palaces in Europe at this same time. Pomp and circumstance played a role in the everyday lives of the rich. Owning land was important for many reasons. Not only did Americans follow in the footsteps of gain, loss, and expansion as their European counterparts, but also they had requirements of their own.[1]

American elitists had their own representational gentile society. Gaining land was easy and cheap in America. However, it took more than just being on the continent to create wealth. So, those that earned more tended to display more than their European counterparts. The accumulation of property and the enlargement of the abode were significant outward displays. Properties were gained and lost for different reasons. There were just as many reasons, if not more as to men kept property.  American aristocrats such as George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and John Adams all held property, and all of which represented the reasons inferred above.[3]

European nobles like Lord Bolingbroke moved to America, but the majority of the American elites were born on colonial soil. Without the stability of a name with history, many parvenu colonials felt the need to express their newfound wealth through grandiose visibility and materialism. The merchant and farmer classes grew to become wealthy elite who tended to have more of an outward expression of their finances. This paper interprets the reasons behind the loss, gain, and expansion of property in the American long eighteenth century. It also interprets the expressions and uses of large estates by the bourgeoisie in the New Republic. Finally, the symbolic meanings of grand estates for colonial landowners will be shown. [2]

George St. John
3rd Viscount Bolingbroke
thepeerage.com

THESIS STATEMENT

American colonial elites held grand properties for symbolic meanings including a promise of political, social, and economic positioning. There were losses, acquisitions, and improvements where these aristocratic locals lived and loved in luxurious comfort. (Argument is not set as of yet.)

BIG IDEA

The big idea here will be considering the symbolic meaning of the estate for Colonial American and New Republic landowners. The meanings of estates gained because of new opportunities in America may have been different than property that had been lost, and then perhaps for that of which was regained. The average person did not have a grand estate, did they have a different outlook about material success / failure which made them not be able to make their mark on the map? Was there an “American Dream” of accessing wealth via property on a grand scale during this time period, or were they still stuck in the British idea of staying within the status from which they were born? The meanings of structures, animals, and servants (employed, indentured, and enslaved) will also be explored. Finally, any connection to modern situations will be briefly affixed to each scenario.

 

John Dickenson Plantation
history.delaware.gov

QUESTIONS

1. Why did people want to own land in America? Why did they want grandiose estates? Do the reasons of ownership compare with those of England? Were they similar, different, or exactly the same? Or, was it a new American Dream?
2. Was there any type of symbolism in owning one type of property over another? Did the different social or economic classes think the same, or were there differences?
3. Have these reasons changed for the twenty-first century? If so, what are they now?
4. How were the majority of large estates acquired? Was there a trend during certain times (veteran grants, tax purchases, enlarging estates, etc.)? If so, what were the timelines?
5.  Who was the largest landowner in the American Colonies? Was there a change after the Revolutionary War? If so, who was the replacement and why was there a change?
6. Was there a trend in losing property? If so, what were they, and what were the timelines?
7. Was there any type of symbolism in losing property for those men that lost it, or was it just a matter of materialism? Was there a change in social status because of that loss?
8. What are the implications of loss of property today? Are there any similarities?
9. Did slavery have an impact on the quality of the property/structure? What did these men and women do in regards to acquisitions and/or loss? Was there a financial gain or loss if property had enslaved people living and working on the property? Was there a reason other than having additional workers for owning other people?
10. What were the feelings of women for the above? Did they have any opinions that were the same as the men, or were they different?
11. What about the children?

Photograph by author

SCOPE AND APPROACH

Chapter One

Historiography

Chapter one will be the historiography of the sources used within the thesis project. This will be relatively simple and straightforward. Many of the primary sources will be from published works. Others will be from sites that will be visited. Currently there are more secondary sources than primary, but this is only because most of the primaries have not been found as of yet, and many of the secondary will end up not being used. The historiography, will take up quite a bit of space because of the number of sources cited. It was not, however, included in the original length configuration. Therefore, the thesis will more than likely take up well over the minimum space.

Chapter Two

Why Property?

Political positioning was one major reason for the acquisition of large amounts of property. It was even more imperative that these men had a house that impressed men of lower social rank. Men who already had estates wanted something to show off their political positioning. Thomas Jefferson’s home Monticello was built in the Roman neoclassical style, to represent his Republican ideals. According to James C. Newman, “Jefferson argued that the Republic needed architectural practices that mirrored, in spirit, its political ethos” of continual change by future occupants” and so “In testimony to this belief, Jefferson built and refashioned Monticello.”[1]

Acquisition or improvements of homes for the elite were also used to create or reinforce a position within a certain social class. The more money one had did not necessarily mean the more grandiose a property was. However, a social class may have required, if not a certain type of home or property, then perhaps within a general location. Or, perhaps a gross display of gaudiness was important to one social group, and not having it was more important to another. Georgian Rococo seemed to be more popular before the Revolution, and classical revival, especially Roman Revival, afterward. James Geddy Jr. purchased his home from his mother, established a business, and then tore it down to build a larger, grander one that offered “a more stately and dignified image and offered more cultivated spaced, which allowed Geddy to be the public figure he wished to be.”[2]

British Georgian nobles wanted a family seat for themselves and their offspring. Many of the secondary sons did not receive any type of inheritance. As this was true of American secondary sons as well, purchasing their own property base seems to be a reasonable assumption. Colonel George Mason IV built his estate called Gunston Hall for that purpose hoping that it would have remained “in family hands in perpetuity,” unfortunately that was not the case.[3]

Families who lived in country estates were usually well away from society. So, vacation homes were purchased in areas for closer connection. Summers in the South were extremely hot, humid, and disease ridden. City houses were for family members to get away from this repression and for the social seasons. In the North, it seemed to be the opposite. City dwellers went to their country estates. Governor and Senator Christopher Gore and his wife originally built Gore Place for their summer getaways in 1806 after their other mansion burned down.[4]

Those enslaved in the country remained there, but family paid servants and servant-slaves went with the family. What were those positions that were so important to domestication in the city, and why were they important? Apparently butlers were one of the most important. Gore’s butler, Robert Roberts was one of the best. He was “one of the first African Americans and issued by a commercial press, and it was written while Roberts was in the employ of Christopher Gore.”[5] Roberts believed that every position, “every station that He allows us to fulfill, is useful and honorable in their different degrees.”[6] It was the house servants that were more important, and that they should be better dressed, but “not be foppish, or extravagant,” because “he is generally exposed to the eyes of the public”[7]

What was the importance of sports and entertaining to the American colonial elite? Sports such as fox, rabbit, and quail hunting were very important in the long eighteenth-century. Picnics, teas, and balls were also very important. How did this affect the estates? Men completely reshaped their property to include hahas (ditches on one side of a fence), shrub fences and areas where foxes could live. Even the great “Washington had avenues cut through some of his woods to facilitate the sport (foxhunting) and possibly to make the riding easier for the ladies.”[8] New game animals such as rabbits, pheasants, and quail were brought into areas that had never had them before. Horseracing was another hugely popular gentleman sport. Were the male pursuits more important than the female in regard to importance, size, shape, decoration, or location of, or within, the property? Were there any considerations for children, servants, or enslaved? [9]

Fashion considerations regarding attire as well as building and grounds styling was surprisingly important during this period. Rococo styled wide skirts required wide doors and chairs without arms. Fancy embellishments on walls both inside and out were seen. A “full-blown Georgian building tradition was finally established… when the brick mansion of Merchant Archibald Macpheadris was constructed,” which included formal and pleasure gardens.[10] Opaque-twist wine stems, upholstery tacks, dipped white salt-glazed ceramics, “large amounts of architectural debris as well as several delftware tile pieces… [was] in common decorative fashion of the 18^th century,” all of which were found in the debris at Joseph Sherburne’s Sherburne House.[11] After the attire changed to a more classical style of Greek and Roman informality, estates changed also. Columns were added to plain facades, Greek and Roman statues were added to interiors and gardens. Entire areas were changed to have a more natural look, but perhaps less so than in England. Romantic sensibilities took hold for many in their lives, which transformed their American estates.[12]

Some American men wanted land solely for its income potential. They made purchases specifically for their re-sell capability. Traditional, and con-style trades made some individuals quite wealthy. There was a rumor that Dr. Benjamin Joy was a land-shark because he bought land for low cost and then resold it at a higher price. Most of the members of the House of Burgesses were land speculators. Mr. Clifton offered, Brents estate with 1, 106 acres to George Washington for a certain price. He then rescinded that offer because he had sold it for a price that was two hundred pounds more than what Washington agreed to pay.[13] Were there any buildings built with the intention of leasing out or selling for income? Researching and reporting on this question will also be included within this section.[14]

Including income-generating agriculture will substantiate or negate the thesis argument. There are several points on agricultural income. The first is the most obvious, the produce. Food such as wheat was a production staple in the United States in the long eighteenth-century. Tobacco was another, and probably most financially important crop. Animal husbandry’s financial responsibility of gain or loss will be researched. Beef and pork were not only sold direct to consumers (and middle men) as food, but they were bred for bestial improvement for the breeder, for cash, and for acclaim. Interestingly, dogs were another breading revenue, mostly because of sports hunting. Horses and donkeys were also sold or bred for compensation. William Burtch raised Merino sheep, Durham cattle and Morgan horses for monetary gain.[15]

If direct agricultural income was not high enough, or a gentleman wanted a better-rounded portfolio, farm rentals could generate needed funds.  Plots, houses, farms, and even full plantations were rented.  Yeoman farmers were the usual renters of plots and farms. The new rich were known to rent out mansions, especially if it belonged to an old family where both names could be used in conjunction if needed. Judge Overton rented out a plantation on Browns Creek to others. Did he own it, or was he an agent? This is unknown at this time, but will be further researched. European and/or American nobles even rented houses during visits of long duration. Mrs. Lee rented a house in Alexandria while her husband, Light Horse Harry Lee, was in debtor’s prison.[16] Dr. Benjamin Rawlings’ former home was rented to others by groups of two at a time.[17] In England family members rented out houses and estates, did this happen in America too, or, were family members placed without expectation of rent?

 Other people did not necessarily mean family members; it also meant indentured servants and/or the enslaved. Groups of people may have continually changed because sales of slaves and indenture did occur, of which women and children were included. A mother named Frances and “her child named Hannah… being something more than two years old for him the said David Seaman his Heirs Executors & Administrators and to have & to hold… from hence forth & forever.”[18] Were there any men in the long eighteenth century that might have considered the idea of slavery strictly for income? Was there a significant financial gain, or loss of having enslaved or indentured workers on an estate?

Deed of Indenture
ebay.com

Chapter Three

Acquired How?

As the largest estates generally passed through direct inheritance and widow’s rights, many men gained their titles through natural or dubious means. George Wythe Sweeney was indicted, but not convicted, of the murder of his uncle who had just changed his will in favor of Sweeney and Michael Brown. Brown was found murdered at the same time.[19]  Dower rights kept land for women who lost their husbands. Mrs. William Burtch was one such woman who had dower rights at her Burtch-Udall Homestead.[20] An inheritance of cash, or other objects were sold for cash, and then converted into property. Marriage was another type of inheritance. Light Horse Harry Lee gained his estate, Stratford Hall, by marrying his cousin Matilda.[21] Marrying for land, house, or money to purchase those was not only hoped for, but also definitely occurred in America just as it did in the rest of the world.

Men who found their fortunes in business and/or trade were also interested in acquiring land. In fact, many people came to America with the implicit idea of buying property. Who were these men, and was there a specific place that they were more interested than in another, or did it not matter? Other men were born of modest means but then found themselves advantaged by work and diligence. William Burtch gained his money by selling medicinal ginseng, among other items so that he could purchase his home.[22]

One person definitely gained his estate directly from gambling. William Clarke Somerville won Sotterley Hall, a large plantation on the Patuxent River in Maryland “while gambling with local gentry.”[23]  Was there anyone else that either had a direct gain of property, or used his or her proceeds from gambling to purchase an estate? If so, who were they, and what property did they purchase? Time period gambling included horse races, dice, cards, and general bets. If there were multiple people, was there one type of gambling that was more beneficial than the others?

Military men were certainly gamblers, and many of those warriors received land grants for service. Was there anyone who held an estate due to a combination of military-service gained property and gambling winnings? If so, who were they, and what were the particulars? British soldiers received American land for service to the crown. The French and Indian War helped men purchase or improve their property. Was there anyone who tried to collect grants from colleagues and combine them to create a larger tract? The answer was yes at least for one man. Washington did this! He not only received grants of 20,000 acres for his service in the French and Indian War, and “Many of his fellow soldiers held their grants so lightly that he was able to buy their claims for almost a song,”  which meant as little as “two cents per acre.”[24] The Revolutionary War gave out many, many grants. Senator Daniel Smith received a large land grant for service in the Revolutionary War, which made him one of the largest plantation owners in Middle Tennessee.

Cards, the game of fun and the game of vice
georgianjunkie.wordpress.com

Chapter Four

Reasons Lost

A real possibility of losing property due to overspending occurred during the continual changing atmosphere of Colonial America. Over-spenders left debts so large that they, or their inheritor had to sell parts, or the property in its entirety, for account settlements. There were times when arrears were due directly to property improvements for either needed, or just aesthetic changes. Repossession and Sheriff Sales occurred daily. A man named States Morris Dyckman had a habit of overspending, and “in 1793 he sold his prized library of 1,400 leather-bound books… for an undisclosed sum, presumably to raise money to cover the costs of making improvements to his home and purchasing furnishings.”[25]

Just as people gained property gambling, others lost it that way too. Gambling was very much a part of the eighteenth-century society, and just as then as now, there were men who were addicted. Perhaps it was these men who put their property title(s) up as promissory notes or guarantees of payment. So, if the gambler lost the hand with the title, he lost his property. Or, if he gambled it as a guarantee for funds that he did not have on hand, then the property could have been turned over. Another way of losing a property was renting it out with the funds going to pay off that debt. The idea was that person lost it for a time, sometimes his and/or his wife’s lifetime. William Byrd III lost his grand family estate, Westover Plantation and “more than 179,000 acres, hundreds of slaves, mills, fisheries, vessels, warehouses, and a store” because of gambling.[26]

The ramification of not paying taxes was either losing the property completely, or having to rent it out for profit. Taxes were paid to the Crown before the Revolution. After the death of John Semple, his estate of over twelve hundred acres of land had to be sold for “nonpayment of the taxes due to his Majesty in the years 1765 and 1766.”[27] Even so, the sale was still subject to his wife Elizabeth’s dower rights.  If the sale of the property did not pay off the debt, was the person sought after for the rest? If the property sold for more, did the money go back to the person who had lost it? What was the meaning to the repossessed, to those that witnessed it, and to those who were considered chattel when the estate was lost or sold?

George Washington sold off property to purchase others, and he also relinquished land to finance improvements to his favorite estate Mount Vernon. Was he alone, or were there others? This seems to be a positive turn to the loss of property. Did others think this way, or did they think of it negatively? Another reason for yielding one could it have been because fees and upkeep were too cumbersome that another location was sold strictly for the benefit of the first? If this happened, what was the meaning of that property to the family?[28]

Families can be fickle, this is true now, and was true in the eighteenth-century. A man could have been removed from the will or inheritance of property.  This was common in England, did this happen often in America too? If so, who were they? More commonly a woman lost her cash or land dowry. This happened due to the loss or remarriage of a parent. Nancy Randolph moved in with her sister and brother-in-law when her father remarried and his new wife “had made her leave” her family plantation Bazaar.[29] More romantically, a loss could have happened due to an inappropriate liaison and/or marriage. Romantic at first, but assuredly less so when it was felt after the connection had been made. What is the likelihood of the above in America?

Colonial Americans who sided with England during the Revolutionary war lost their land. Duncan MacVicar gained an estate with the land he gained from his services with the British 77^th Infantry in combination with acquisitions. When he returned to Scotland due to ill health, he “took his departure from the country (America) without disposing of his property… [and it] was confiscated by the new republican government.”[30] Losing land, businesses, and local respect occurred because of treason by being steadfast instead of following the patriotism of their neighbors. John Chandler lost his comfortable estate because he was a loyalist and committed two acts  “which aroused the indignation of his fellow townsmen of the revolutionary party, and in the end brought humiliation upon him and upon all who were associated with him.” [31] He signed a protest toward Governor Gage, and then had to sign an apology, of which he found it impossible to remain “with safety [any] longer in Worcester” and so removed himself from America completely.[32]

Non-payment of rent or mortgage occurred in Colonial and the New Republic America just as it does now. This was true for small properties as well as large plantations. Four recessions occurred during the eighteenth-century where stocks plummeted and jobs were lost. With the loss of income, mortgage and debt payments went unpaid and therefore properties were sold at auction. Claude Borel, esq. of St. Mary City, near Savannah, Georgia had his cotton plantation seized and sold. He only had five hundred acres, but two hundred were already planted with cotton and corn. The plantation held “a dwelling-house, outhouses, and Negro houses, and also a saw mill.”[33] Was any of this property regained, or were these people able to attain any other property?

Was there anyone who became wealthy because of repossessions? Lawyers and judges certainly profited. Judge John Overton owned a large plantation in Nashville, Tennessee presided over and supported copious repossession cases. Were old name families able to keep their property longer because of their name, or did it not matter? Because of Judge Overton appears to have nudged some cases, there may have been human dispositions playing in court cases then as they do now. This will be researched further.[34]

Nancy Randolph Morris
Tangled Roots and Trees

Chapter Five

Combination of Loss and Gain

Finally, a combination of gain and loss within one scenario will be investigated. In a divorce, depending upon the outcome of each case, the man lost property and the woman gained, or vice-versa. In most cases, when a woman married, her property went to her husband except for the improvements. Upon a divorce, the woman could lose property she brought into the marriage, especially since most judges favored the man. However, some cases the husband did lose the dowry property upon separation. Tryphena Herrick asked the court for her property back because she had been the “faithful wife of the said Nathaniel, but the said Nathaniel since the marriage aforesaid, hath often violated the marriage covenant, and has committed adultery with divers persons.”[35] There was the possibility that the result had to do with the character of the husband in this particular case.

Chapter Six

Conclusion

The conclusion of the thesis will tie up and retell the information uncovered during research. Instead of having additional chapters on women and slavery, Jennifer L. Eichstedt and Stephen Small suggested in their book Representations of Slavery: Race and Ideology in Southern Plantation Museums, that these people be included in the midst of the dialog instead of segregating them. This will show respect that if isolated may actually be disassociated at best and discriminatory at worst. The conclusion, though, will include these subjects alongside others to showcase what meanings grand estates had for the American elite, and it will be done to the best and most authentic point of view possible. An original argument will be presented that will showcase the reasons why property was wanted, how estates were gained, and also repossession causes and ramifications.  Colonial and New Republic Americans American held their grand estates because of symbolic meanings which included a promise for political, economic, and especially for social positioning. [36]

Travellers Rest Plantation
Photograph taken by author

Primary Sources

Symbolic meanings of estates will best be sourced through primary sources of all types. Artifacts have been found to be great sources. Plantations, and their houses will be viewed and remarked upon. One location has many photographs on a blog of a friend who owns the property, and who will be interviewed for the thesis. Bills of sale for enslaved and indentured servants included information besides the price and term of service that will be measured and remarked upon. Gardens, plants, and seeds will be viewed, and possibly grown for better understanding of the time period. Wallpapers, paint, and archaelogicaly found artifacts would be assessed, too. Time period furniture has already been photographed and posted upon the Sassy Countess Blog page. This will be used with the understanding that additional pieces may also find their way into the document.  [37]

Pieces of many individual autobiographies, journals, and memoirs have been pegged for citation. Writings from famous and unknown people will be integrated into the paper. There were wealthy and aspirants who wrote about their own estates, and plantations of others. Men and women’s remembrances included staying at other’s homes, or a fondness of their own. Americans and Brits, regular and noble were enamored of the idea of owning grand American properties.

Photograph taken by author

The first thought was actually to get one of America’s favorite British authors into the thesis. Three of Jane Austen’s books will more than likely be quoted.  Pride and Prejudice, Sense and Sensibility, and Persuasion are the three in question.  Each one told the connection of English gentry’s connection with grand country estates. More specifically, they were written from a lady’s view and feelings. [38] 

Lady American poets and authoress will be cited, as well as a contemporary book review of another non-fiction American authoress. Mercy Otis Warren wrote several poems, and at least one of her miscellaneous poems may be used. More than one had a premise that love was based upon one’s location of birth and growth. Good breeding was not only important for their animals, but it was also important with families. Connections of old money and family names meant a lot, sometimes even more than love.[39]

Literature and instructional books began to spring up during the eighteenth century. The Enlightenment and Romanticism found their way to America too. The fictional book The Coquette, Or, The Life and Letters of Eliza Wharton by Hannah Webster Foster included a rake that mortgaged his estate and lost it due to his “poverty and disgrace.”[40] The Anti-Jacobin Review and Magazine considered Helena Wells’ Letters on Subjects of Importance to the Happiness of Young Females, Addressed by a Governess to Her Pupils, Chiefly while they Were Under Her Immediate Tuition. To Which Is (Are) Added, A (Some) Few Practical Lessons on the Improprieties of Language and Errors of Pronunciation, Which Frequently Occur in Common Conversation. The critique was a true criticism of the American authoress, but did include information on the desirability of women.[41] Other time period American literature will also be used as primary sources.

An American for at least a short period of time, J. Hector St. John de Crevecoeur compiled his letters on farming in book in 1794. His work was important because he included so much information on farming techniques from his time. America was an agrarian society during the long eighteenth century and Crevecoeur had a large part in it. A lot of novel and introductory farming procedures were included in his work. Implementation of experimental processes seemed to have been something that wealthy American landowners were interested in reading about as well as performing themselves.[42]

Richard Bradley was another author who wrote about different farming techniques for improvements. He, however, went about this in a philosophical as well as practical method. This was the time of the Enlightenment, and he was working his farm in an Enlightened fashion. Because of this view, philosophy would have been important to many. Authors on Enlightenment, such as Roy Porter, have said that philosophy was usually more important to the gentry and wealthy middle-classes. Obviously, these were the people who had larger estates and grand mansions. Bradley’s philosophical and practical improvements may have meant more to these men then they did to the poor, or perhaps it only had to do with available funds to try different farming styles.[43]

Staying in the theme of farming, T. R. Malthus’s Observations on the Effects of the Corn Laws, and of a Rise or Fall in the Price of Corn on the Agriculture and General Wealth of the Country, detailed the effects on American farmers. Malthus also included information on land and techniques from before the laws, which will be beneficial in supplying background on any changes to wealth and possibly ecology. While this book was printed toward the end of the preferred period, 1814, Malthus also wrote about Canada in his text. Both English and Canadians can be used as comparisons to the American landed gentry.[44]

John Melish’s journal was about his adventures traveling through America, Canada, England, and Ireland. The American parts will be the focus, however. He visited many mansions and plantations through several states. He compared America’s backcountry nobles with those in England, and he believed hospitality made Americans more equitable than their European contemporaries. Melish wrote about traveling through lands belonging to one plantation where it took as long as a day or more to cover. According to Melish, this was true for many estates in different American areas.[45]

It may not be easily apparent why Memoirs of the American Revolution, So Far as it Related to the States of North and South Carolina, and Georgia by William Moultrie will be included. Moultrie gave accounts of men leaving the War to attend to their homes and farms, both large and small. He also wrote about women hosting the enemy, either British or American, depending on the view of the lady. There were teas, parties, and even balls in homes of those that were held under siege by opposing forces. Keeping up appearances and graces of gentlewomen will be an interesting subject for inclusion.[46]

Ladies and Gentlemen found themselves in trouble before and after the war in regards to their property. Different newspaper articles indicated repossession of land, home, animals, property, and enslaved human beings. Collections were due, in part, for choosing the wrong side, such as Mr. Clarke who was the tea consigner of the infamous tea tax.[47] Others were taken because of death. Sales of inherited properties were in papers, but not much information as to why they were encumbered was written. However, the number of forced sales of plantations and/or their items were staggering![48]

George Washington had a marvelous plantation that he not only inherited, but also improved upon with money that he gained from his marriage. He also gained dower enslaved-workers. John Quincy Adams wrote about land in Life and Public Services of John Quincy Adams, Sixth President of the United States. Thomas Jefferson’s autobiography had information about his property. Abigail Adams’s memoir even had household etiquette, which was important in every day life.[49]

Wills have also been collected which showed who was left what, and indicated what was owned during the lifetime of the person when the will was written. Obviously the presidents listed above had wills, Washington’s and Jefferson’s, have been located and will be used. There was a secondary source of Sir William Keith and Ann, Lady Keith and their estate. If a primary document can be found on them, it will be better. Even so, it still may be cited. Will and marriage notices in newspapers included information on estates, and therefore many will be cited.[50]

Numerous land grants have been located for the late Colonial America and the Early Republic time periods. Most were found for sale on eBay. So, they were very easily accessed, and were also easy to read. Signed by Presidents, such as James Madison and James Monroe after the Revolution, they were usually signed by the Governor beforehand. Land grants at three different local historic houses, and more in the State Library in Nashville will also be researched.[51]

Tennessee Gazette
Genealogy Bank

Newspapers and periodicals were checked and evaluated. Newspaper advertisements of land for sale, as well as sheriff sales were standard at this time in history, and many will be cited. Notices of personal possessions that were sold and wanted were in newspapers as well. Advertisements for articles like wallpaper were included in newspapers and periodicals in the United States. What a woman was expected of her in her role of domesticity was established in a ladies’ magazine, but written by a man. A British gentleman’s magazine discussed a gentleman’s behavior and the possibility of owning American property

 [52]

Olaudah Equiano
rediscovered histories

The only currently found contemporary source written by an enslaved black man about his life was the Project Gutenberg E-Book of The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African, by Olaudah Equiano. This gentleman wrote about his trip from Africa to America. He wrote about his first assessment of white men. He wrote of his experience at a plantation of a Virginia gentleman. A description of a restrictive devise on an enslaved woman’s face and head as she was cooking was written in a matter of fact voice. Equiana wrote down what he believed his sale price was, also in a matter of fact voice. Equiana’s dialog is very important to the narrative because it shows the realities behind the romance of the past.[53]

Personal correspondences have also been gathered. Letters from people in America, and in England either separately or published in a compilation were located.  Correspondences between men were easy to locate. However, writings solely between women that involved no men, and where land, estates, or even household management was included was difficult to locate in a primary source situation. The ladies usually only briefly mentioned locations, or gave information within only one or two sentences in corresponded with another female. However, when added together with other sources, their value becomes evident, perhaps making information gleaned here worth more. Abigail Adams, Sally Smith and Elizabeth Carter are three ladies who corresponded with other ladies and who will be cited.[54]

Sources will be cited that have not been located as of yet. Specialists will be interviewed either in person, over the telephone, or through e-mails. These people may be specialists of historic wallpaper, paint, social sciences, cooking, etc. Eighteenth-century house museums will be visited for their layout, architecture, and interiors. Historic house museums in sixteen states are currently designated for visitation or research. These locations are on the Eastern Seaboard and were part of the original British colonies. Locations located in Illinois, Florida, Louisiana, and/or Mississippi, may be used comparatively because they were French or Spanish colonies prior to accessioning. Interesting conclusions may be found, and therefore be valuable sources.

Contemporary sources of household and estate management instruction will be cited. Currently just two sources of repute have been located. However, as time goes on, more will surely be found. The best source at this time is Robert Roberts’ The House servant’s Directory (Title has been shortened here) because he was a valued Black house butler. This was the first printed book to be sold that was written by a Black man. Particularly, this book was written not just for servants, but for their masters’ understanding as well. This makes the source not only important because of its author, but also because of its content and for who the readers were.[55]

Purchase this great book here

Secondary Sources

An original argument will be used for this thesis; therefore there is no direct secondary source that mimics or negates the argument. Sources were found that encourage idea points within each chapter, but nothing that is completely comparative as of this time. Supporting sources have been found, but most do not comment on how or why they came to their conclusion. Two sources have come close to the argument, but the authors did not argue for the symbolism behind the meanings. Therefore, different genre sources will be used to create a more competent and cultivated final document that will delve into non-researched areas. Secondary sources are broken down into sections of connectivity. While the sources are not complete as of yet, the ideology behind the writing style can be seen.

The first section of secondary sources in the Bibliography is the “America” Category.[56] Traditional books, e-books, Kindle books, Nook books, papers, and lectures are just some of the documents explored. There is one lecture by Professor Chris Beam in this category of secondary sources. Beam’s lecture dealt with the War of 1812. Even though the thesis time period will end before this war, Professor Beam included information on the ideals of men prior to the Revolution, French and Indian War, and also the War of 1812. The original web address has been given within this bibliography, but it actually was saved from the original time of the class onto the computer for future reference.[57]

Legal and historic law books will be used as sources as well. In “Does the use of British Common Law as Precedent in United States Courts Carry with it a Class Bias in Favor of the Rich?” Lisa Borodkin asked the question for current times, but she also spoke in depth on British Common Law in America prior to the Revolution. Kunal Parker also gave Americanized British Common Law background and history in his book Common Law, History, and Democracy in America, 1790-1900: Legal Thought before Modernism.  William Wiecek delivered background in Lost World of Classical Legal Thought: Law and Ideology in America, 1886-1937, but he also conveyed some ideology behind the processes and changes.[58]

Sanctioned and history were not the only law books included. Others warranted logic, assertion, and repurcussions. Editor Henry Poor’s book, You and the Law, translated old laws into laymen’s terms, connected locations of start and end dates, and enlightened specifics on widows’ and Dower Rights in the United States.  Frank G. Clarke’s The Greenwood Histories of the Modern Nations: The History of Australia has one chapter on how and why the British came to their Jingoistic idea of highest-best use, which is partially used today in America’s eminent domain laws. Evelyn Cecil in Primogeniture discussed other family laws including primogeniture and entailment.[59]

Charles Sellers did not have a lot of information on the appointed timeline that this thesis will encapsulate. However, he did discuss reasons behind ownership of property and houses. His book, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America 1815-184 was mostly on information after Andrew Jackson’s Presidency. Even so, he did briefly include ideology of housing physicality of the long eighteenth-century in America. Construction style changed from the British Georgian to a more Republic stylized classical-revival after the Revolutionary War.[60]

Thomas Jefferson
Citation earlier in blog

In Jeffersonian Democracy: Which means the Democracy of Thomas Jefferson, Andrew Jackson and Abraham Lincoln, John Robertson Dunlap asserted political reasoning of holding property. This work especially compared possible rationale differences between George Washington and Thomas Jefferson. Philosophical differences in property will be used to deduce their lifestyle orientations as well. George Washington’s Rules of Civility Traced to their Sources and Restored by Moncure D. Conway cannot be used as a primary source, because it was not a complete transcription. Some of Washington’s rules will be used in conjunction with Dunlap’s to complete a gentlemanly behavioral trend.[61]

Presidential first lady, Martha Washington had her own customs. Were her customs different than her husband’s because she was born into a higher and wealthier society, or because she was a woman? Both could be accurate. How Martha Washington Lived: 18^th Century Customs by Charles A. Mills brought Mrs. Washington’s values, folklore, knowledge, lifestyle, and arts and sciences into view. Lewis Paul Todd and Merle Curti are American History specialists gave a more generalized agreement in their work How Martha Washington Lived: 18^th Century Customs. The normalities of life were within Walter T. Durham’s Daniel Smith Frontier Statesman. Durham specialized in Tennessee Senator Daniel Smith and his American Indian treaties. Instructions to Mrs. Smith on how to run the farm were included in Durham’s book on the eighteenth-century backcountry-man.[62]

Three additional secondary sources dealt with eighteenth-century art, artifacts, fashion, and furniture. Clothing and living fashions were within Ackermann’s Repository of the Arts: Fashions in the Era of Jane Austen, Fashion Pictorial 1809-1820. Specialist Jacob Kainen’s article John Baptist Jackson: 18^th-Century Master of the Color Woodcut was about fashionable woodcuts. Archaeological information on a prehistoric town in Tennessee will be used to show the early origin of domestic crops, especially the sunflower in “One Hundred Years of Archaeology at Gordontown: A Fortiefied Mississippian Town in Middle Tennessee,” in Southeastern Archaeology by Michael C. Moore, Emanuel Breitburg, Kevin E. Smith, and Mary Beth Trubit. The last odd secondary source in this group was a piece of literature. James Fenimore Cooper’s famous The Last of the Mohicans; A Narrative of 1757 occured in the time of the thesis, but was not written at that time. Cooper composed a few remarks on a plantation and hope for home, which made it a perfect addition. [63]

Faith Harrington probably came the closest to the thesis argument with her “The Emergent Elite in Early 18^th Century Portsmouth Society: The Archaeology of the Joseph Sherburne Houselot” in Historical Archaeology Magazine. She argued the house, artifacts, and the enslaved ensured and reinforced “social and political relationships.”[64] She added ideology of legality, status, and materialism. She also covered the correlation of diet and dress, and compared them to the Deetz model of Georgianization of America in the seventeenth-century and its timeline. While other authors would agree with her, she is currently the only source found that has described how the physicality of a home and garden reflected status for eighteenth-century Americans.

Abigail Adams
Custom Wig Company

In The Theory of the Leisure Class by Thorstein Veblen, the idea of class differentiation through visualization was theorized. Veblen has been considered the foremost expert in the subject since the time this piece was published. He wrote about personal expression of dress for distinguishable groups based primarily of financial status.  Some indications were incorporated that discussed desired different types of visibility by the old families verses the new wealthy who gained their position through labor or trade (old money vs. new money.) Veblen stated the distinctions of the classes were made by “economic differentiation,” [65] Veblen was certainly accurate to a point, but American class segregation was not solely based on income.

Sources on England will be used as comparisons to their American contemporaries. Power culture was the theme for T.C.W. Blanning, which brings the idea for social positioning to the forefront. Carola Hicks’ main subject had a son who moved to America, and this will be included. Sources about London and of England’s colonial society were the topic of others. Also discussed were the Englishmen’s self and outward perspectives during the eighteenth-century.[66]

Eighteenth Century America was very much a country based on agriculture. The wealthy Americans had farmland as well as gardens. Gardens could have been kitchen, medicinal, and formal. Enslaved people had personal gardens, which have the technical term of slave garden still. Agricultural sources are the most numerous at present. “Farming and Gardening” consists of agribusiness, social, formal, fundamental, provisional, and medicinal types of sources.[67]

“Manors and Estates” division of the bibliography have a very loose commonality. Books were written about great American houses. Another was solely on slave housing. The Grand Royal Pavilion was the Regency pinnacle, so a source has been included on the palace. A document that was created for people who own historic houses, and looking for authentic floor coverings. The Confiscation of John Chandler’s Estate by Andrew McFarland Davis addressed why, how, and when John Chandler’s grand American country estate was repossessed. Other sources on colonial homes, real estate dealers, slave quarters, and a rental notice are located here. [68]

There are six magazines currently. The one in Archaeology Magazine commented on how people regulate the quality of food, agriculture, and land based on one’s social status and finances. “Georgian Period Decorating” was written as described. “Women and Their (Sp)Houses” compared a woman’s relationship with her house, how they have definitive feelings and sensitivity of possession. In other words, a lady feels a closer connection to a house than a man does. “Porches” included columns and capitals seen in American classical revival homes. Depending on how these sources are used in the final product, they may end up being a primary source instead of a secondary.[69]

Moving pictures and Internet sites are the next and last sections in secondary sources. Two video courses, and three PBS historically based reality shows that relate directly with the eighteenth-century have been included so far. Most of the websites used were historic house-museum web pages. A specialized historic seed company’s website may be quoted because of the many eighteenth-century varieties they have listed. Blog posts on eighteenth-century English gardening have been represented at this time, and hopefully more web sources on American gardens will be located shortly.[70]

Several different types of secondary sources have been, and will continue to be researched for the Masters Thesis. Websites and blogs have been included. Video college courses and historically based reality shows were seen. Magazines from different decades will be cited. Sources on grand houses and estates were discovered. Literature, art, artifacts, fashion, and furniture breathed life as source subjects. England based works will be compared. American sources, both secondary, and more future primary sources will be sought after to prove that there really was “Gentility in Property For 18^th Century Colonial and New Republic American Elite.”

Photograph taken by author

TIME TABLE

The following will be turned in during:

Week One

Holding property was used as:

1. Political Positioning
2. Class Positioning
3. Family Seat
4. Vacation and/or City home
5. Sports and Entertaining
6. A jealousy induced acquisition and/or improvement
7. Fashion plate/ Blank slate for personal artistic expression
8. Monetary Income
9. Farming:

a.)Farming: animals - beef, poultry, pork

b.) Produce and other crops

c.)Small farms on property

d.)Renting out houses/farms to:

i.)Yeoman

ii.)New rich

iii.)Nobles

iv.)Family Member

                        e.) Enslavement

Week Two

Telephone meeting and editing.

Week Three

(Starts next Chapter and Sections)

Property acquired by:

1. Inheritance... 

a.) Inheritance of estate

b.) Inheritance of cash

c.) Marriage

Week Four

Telephone meeting and edits;

2.) Business/Trade

Week Five

3.) Gambling (including races, dice, cards, bets, etc.)

Week Six

Telephone meeting and edits;

4.) Military Service

Week Seven

(Starts next Chapter and Sections)

Loss due to:

1.) Parent's over spending (usually father and/or grandfather)

Week Eight

Telephone meeting and edits;

 2.) Parent gambling title

           a.)Loss of title outright

           b.)Having to sell off or rent out to pay off debts of it or another property

Week Nine

3.) Taxes

a.)Loss of property outright

            b.)Having to sell off or rent out to pay off debts of it or another property

Week Ten

4.) Sell off or Rent out to raise funds for additional property and/or updating another property

5.) Loss of Inheritance/ removed from will and/or position           

Week Eleven

Telephone meeting and edits;           

 6.) Loss of income

 7.) Being on the wrong side during the Revolutionary War

 8.) Loss and Gain

Week Twelve

Introduction, Conclusion, Historiography and final editing

Week Thirteen

Continue editing and telephone meeting.

Week Fourteen

Submit

Photograph taken by author

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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---

[1] James C. Newman,  “An Architectural Revolutionary: Thomas Jefferson Forges a National Identity Through Enlightened Design,” Barringer Fellowship – Monticello. (2012), 17. http://classroom.monticello.org/images/handouts/JeffersonArchitecture.pdf (accessed April 24, 2014)

[2] “James Geddy, Jr.” in ibid.

[3] “Mansion History,” George Mason’s Gunston Hall. N.d. http://www.gunstonhall.org/index.php/mansion/mansion-history (accessed April 24, 2014)

[4] Gore Place: The Historic Governor Gore Estate. (Last update, April 24, 2014) http://www.goreplace.org/index.htm (accessed April 24, 2014)

[5] Ibid.

[6] Robert Roberts, The House servant’s Directory or A monitor for Private Families: Hints on the Arrangement and Performance of Servant’s Work with General Rules for Setting Out Tables and Sideboards in First Order; The Art of Waiting in all its Branches; and Likewise How to Conduct Large and Small Parties with Order; With General Directions for Placing on Table All Kinds of Joints, Fish, Fowl, &c. with Full Instructions for Cleaning Plate, Brass, Steel, Glass, Mahogany; and Likewise All Kinds of Patent and Common Lamps: Observations on Servant’s Behavior to Their Employers; and Upwards of 100 Various and Useful Receipts, Chiefly Compiled for the Use of House Servants/ and Identically Made to Suit the Manners and Customs of Families in the United States. (Boston: Munroe and Francis; NY: Charles S. Francis, 1827), 12 Kindle Edition, Location 142.

[7] Ibid, 60, Location 2451.

[8]Paul Leland Haworth, George Washington: Farmer. (1915.), Kindle Edition, Location 2421.

[9] Taylor Speer-Sims. “Farming as Fashion, Part Three,” (October 18, 2012) The Sassy Countess. (November 1, 2012) http://thesassycountess.blogspot.com/2012/11/farming-as-fashion-part-three.html. (accessed April 23, 2014)

[10] Faith Harrington, “The Emergent Elite in Early 18^th Century Portsmouth Society: The

Archaeology of the Joseph Sherburne Houselot.” Historical Archaeology, Vo. 23. No. 1. 1989. in JSTOR.

[11] Ibid.

[13] Haworth, 211.

[14] J. L. Bell, “What the Rev. William Stith Truly Said,” (July 24, 2013) Boston 1775: History, Analysis, and Unabashed Gossip about the Start of the American Revolution in Massachusetts. (2014) http://boston1775.blogspot.com/ (accessed April 22, 2014)

[15] “Theron Boyd,” (N.d.) Vermont Historic Sites: State of Vermont. (2014) http://historicsites.vermont.gov/vt_history/theron_boyd (accessed April 23, 2014)

[16] Judy Hynson. Education, Stratford Hall: Home of the Lees of Virginia & Birthplace of Robert E. Lee. Personal communication with author. April 21, 2014.

[17] George M. Deadrick,  “To Be Let, and Possession Given Immediately” May 10, 1800.

Conduct of a Gentleman from Overton.PDF. n.d.

[18] Willis, William, (Bill of Sale) 1716. copied in “An 18^th Century Bill of Sale for a Slave and Her Child,” American Social History Project: Center for Media and Learning. http://herb.ashp.cuny.edu/archive/files/slave-billsale_3e473f959f.jpg (accessed April 22, 2014)

[19] George Wythe,” In Colonial Williamsburg: That the Future May Learn from the Past. (2014) http://www.history.org/almanack/people/bios/gedbijam.cfm (accessed April 21, 2014)

[20] Vermont Historic Sites: State of Vermont.

[21] Hynson.

[22] Vermont.

[23] Valley Lee, “Mulberry Fields,” (Ca. 1972) State of Maryland, n.d. http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/stagsere/se1/se5/023000/023800/023818/pdf/msa_se5_23818.pdf. (accessed April 21, 2014)

[24] Haworth, 219, 256.

[25] “Timeline of Boscobel History,” Boscobel House and Gardens. 2012. http://www.boscobel.org/history/history-timeline/#6 (accessed April 25, 2014)\

[26] “William Byrd III,” Colonial Williamsburg: That the Future May Learn from the Past. (2014.) http://www.history.org/almanack/people/bios/biowbyrd.cfm (accessed April 21, 2014)

[27] Virginia Gazette. November 8, 1770. in Genealogy Bank. 2014. genealogybank.com

(accessed April 10, 2014)

[28] Haworth, 329.

[29] Alan Pell Crawford, Unwise Passions: A True Story of a Remarkable Woman – and the First Great Scanal of Eighteenth-Century America. (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 247

[30] Anne Grant, Memoirs of an American Lady with Sketches of Manners and Scenes in

America as they Existed Previous to the Revolution. (New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1909), Location 196. Kindle addition.

[31] Andrew McFarland. The Confiscation of John Chandler’s Estate. (Boston: Houghton,

Mifflin and Company, 1903), 12. Google Books.

[32] Ibid, 15.

[33] “Marshal’s Sale,” Georgia Gazette, Issue 865. (May 22, 1800) Genealogy Bank. (accessed April 24, 2014)

[34] “Sheriff’s Sales,” Tennessee Gazette, Vol. 1, Issue 22. (June, 25, 1800) Genealogy Bank. (accessed April 24, 2014)

[35] Hampshire Gazette. October 14, 1795. in Genealogy Bank. 2014.

genealogybank.com (accessed April 10, 2014)

[36] Jennifer L. Eichstedt and Stephen Small, Representations of Slavery: Race and Ideology in Southern Plantation Museum. (Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002), 257.

[37] Taylor Speer-Sims, “Made in America” Series. The Sassy Countess. 2012. thesassycountess.blogspot.com. 2014.

[38] Jane Austen,. Pride and Prejudice. 1813 in The Works of Jane Austen. Ann Arbor, MI: Borders Group, 2004; ---- Sense and Sensibility. 1811 in The Works of Jane Austen. Ann Arbor, MI: Borders Group, 2004.

[39] Mercy Otis Warren, Poems Dramatic and Miscellaneous. (Boston: I. Thomas and E. T. Andrews, 1790) 226-227. Google Books.

[40] Hannah Webster Foster, The Coquette, Or, The Life and Letters of Eliza Wharton as Quoted in The Coquette; Or The Life and Letters of Eliza Wharton. A Novel: Founded on Fact. By a Lady of Massachusetts. (Philadelphia: T. B. Peterson & Brothers, 1866), 292.

               

[41] Art. “Miscellanies,” The Anti-Jacobin Review and Magazine.  (May to August, 1799) in Google Books. (accessed March 2, 2014).

[42] J. Hector St. John de Crevecoeur,. Letters from an American Farmer. 1794. Kindle Edition.

[43] Richard Bradley, New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, Both Philosophical and Practical. London: A. Bettesworth and C. Hitch, 1731. Google Books.

[44] T.R. Malthus,  Observations on the Effects of the Corn Laws, and of a Rise or Fall in the Price of Corn on the Agriculture and General Wealth of the Country. London: J. Johnson and Co., 1814. Kindle edition.

[45] John Melish,. Travels Through the United States of America, in the Years 1806 & 1807, and 1809, 1810, & 1811; Including an Account of Passages Betwixt America & Britain, and Travels Through Various Parts of Britain, Ireland, and Canada: With Corrections and Improvements Till 1815. Philadelphia: Belfast; J. Smyth, 1815. Google Books.

[46] William Moultrie, Memoirs of the American Revolution, So Far as it Related to the States of North and South Carolina, and Georgia, Vol II. (New York: David Longworth, Printer, 1802.) Google Books. 

[47] Martha Babcock Amory, The Domestic and Aristic Life of John Singleton Copely, R.A., With Notices of His Works and Reminiscences of His Son, Lord Lyndhurst. By His Granddaughter, Martha Babcock Amory, (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1882.), 26. Google Books.

[48] Numerous newspaper articles, Genealogybank.

[49] Abigail Adams, In Letters of Mrs. Adams, The Wife of John Adams: With an Introductory Memoir by Her Grandson, Charles Francis Adams. Boston: Wilkins, Carter, and Company, 1848. http://books.google.com/books?id=SswKAQAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false (accessed October 13, 2013); Adams, John Quincy. 1800. Quoted in Life and Public Services of John Quincy Adams, Sixth President of the United States. Auburn: Derby, Miller and Company, 1849.

[50] Kyle R. Weaver, ed. Pennsylvania: Trail of History Guides. (Mechaniesburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2003)

[51] Taylor Speer-Sims, “Old Land Grants” in The Sassy Countess (February 27, 2014) thesassycountess.blogspot.com (accessed February 27, 2014)

The grants were saved and posted on the author’s blog page for easy access and citation

locations for each individual document(s).

[52] The Lady’s Weekly Miscellany, Vol. VIII. New York: Edward Whitely, 1809. Google Books.

[53] Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African, by Olaudah Equiano. (London: Self Publishing, 1789). Project Gutenberg. (2005)

[54] Abigail Adams, Letters of Mrs. Adams, The Wife of John Adams: With an Introductory

Memoir by Her Grandson, Charles Francis Adams. (Boston: Wilkins, Carter, and Company, 1848), Google Books.; Elizabeth Carter, A Series of Letters Between Mrs. Elizabeth Carter and Miss Catherine

Talbot, From the Year 1741 to 1770: To Which Are Added Letters From Mrs. Elizabeth Carter to Mrs. Vesey, Between the Years 1763 and 1787; Published from the Original Manuscripts in t. (London: F. C. and J. Rivington, 1970), Nook Edition.; Sally Smith, Letter from Wife Sarah Smith To Husband Daniel Smith. (July 20, 1793). In “A Unit Study For All Sumner County Fourth Grade Students,” N.d. Historic Rock Castle. http://www.historicrockcastle.com/getdoc/4b6ce94b-e34b-4218-bb07-301b5c34b0e3/EDU12_4thGradeCurriculum.aspx (accessed April 23, 2014)

[55] Robert Roberts. The House servant’s Directory or A monitor for Private Families: Hints on the Arrangement and Performance of Servant’s Work with General Rules for Setting Out Tables and Sideboards in First Order; The Art of Waiting in all its Branches; and Likewise How to Conduct Large and Small Parties with Order; With General Directions for Placing on Table All Kinds of Joints, Fish, Fowl, &c. with Full Instructions for Cleaning Plate, Brass, Steel, Glass, Mahogany; and Likewise All Kinds of Patent and Common Lamps: Observations on Servant’s Behavior to Their Employers; and Upwards of 100 Various and Useful Receipts, Chiefly Compiled for the Use of House Servants/ and Identically Made to Suit the Manners and Customs of Families in the United States. (Boston: Munroe and Francis; NY: Charles S. Francis, 1827), Kindle Edition.

[56] Taylor Speer-Sims, “Bibliography.” (April 13, 2014.), 5.

[57] Chris Beam, “HIST404 Lecture, Week 2: The Impact of the War of 1812 on American Society”. N.d. https://edge.apus.edu/xsl-portal/site

[58] Lisa Borodkin. “Does the use of British Common Law as Precedent in United States Courts Carry with it a Class Bias in Favor of the Rich?” n.d. Quora. http://www.quora.com (accessed January 17, 2012); Kunal Parker. Common Law, History, and Democracy in America, 1790-1900: Legal Thought before Modernism. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), Google Books,  (2012); William Wiecek, Lost World of Classical Legal Thought: Law and Ideology in America, 1886-1937. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998)

[59] Henry Poor, Ed., You and the Law. Pleasantville, (NY: Readers Digest, 1971); Frank G. Clarke, The Greenwood Histories of the Modern Nations: The History of Australia (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2002); Evelyn Cecil, Primogeniture (London: Spottiswoode and Co., 1895), Google Books, (2012)

[60] Charles Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991)

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