COLUMBIA CRIED:
The Mourning of George Washington
Seen Through Memoriam
Poetry
 |
| Apotheosis of Washington by Constantino Brumidi in 1865 |
by Taylor Speer-Sims
December 18, 2013
Immediately after George
Washington’s death, the country went into mourning. Each American approached
grief for their leader differently, if they did at all. Artistic testimonies of
loyalty were crafted into works of art by the use of poetry. Memento mori,
poetry, and reverential death poetry were remembrance symbols many American
authors used. Romanticizing the past into poetic works of art created commemorations of George
Washington, which could be termed its own type of American social religion.
Columbia’s
Sons may now lament,
Their
spear is broke, their bow unbent,
Their
glory fled;
Among
the dead great Washington lies,
For
ever closed his eyes.[1]
[sic]
- Miss
Huntly, Serious Air and Chorus. 1799.
George Washington,
aged sixty-seven, died at 10:00 p.m. on December 14, 1799. He did not die
alone, his wife of many years stayed by his side, kneeling and bowing her head
upon the Bible.[2] Washington’s
illness, inflammatory quinsy (severe throat infection) was brief, yet severe
enough to bring death within a day.[3]
Martha Washington recounted that he made no speech, yet expired “worthy of the
Roman fame of his life and character.”[4]
Contradictions said that Washington told “those about him, that he had made his
will, that all his private affairs were in good order.”[5]
No matter who, or how many people were around him at the time that he expired,
people from miles around gathered around the portico of Mount Vernon where the
body lay in state under a shroud for a short time.[6]
Thousands of people
did not hear of Washington’s death for weeks, or even months later. The news
traveled slowly in the New Republic, and the exciting news was in the
newspapers. For many Americans, they learned of their illustrious leader’s
demise through their local paper as a notice, as a poem, or both. Papers copied
news from other papers, or created their own from those original sources. So,
many of the papers had the exact same, or similar copy. When the papers listed
the funeral, they all seemed to have the same information. The parade started
around three or four o’clock in the afternoon. There was a specific order,
beginning with military men.[7]
Men
with arms reverted:
Cavalry
Infantry
Guard
Music
Clergy
The
Generals horse with his saddle holding pistols and boots backwards.
Colonels Colonels.
Simms, Gilpin,
Ramsay, Washington’s
Corps Marsteller
Payne, Little
Mourners
Masonic Brethren,
Citizens[8]
The positioning of
people within the procession was important, as this was the base used
throughout the country for the mock funerals that followed. There was also a
precedent for military men having praised and accompanied Washington. Mock
funerals were different that the real funeral was in that women dressed in
white at the front, representing the sixteen states in the union. Death marches
were played throughout the parade, and sometimes through the meetings that
followed.[9]
Interestingly, the rhythm of Washington’s Dead March and Monody was not sad or
serene, but was more of an uplifting tune compared with today’s death sermon
music.[10]
The events that followed
the parades did not stop with the one piece of music; there were other types of
art perfumed as well. Great men gave grand speeches. Henry Lee, who was known
as “Light-Horse Harry Lee” because of his excellent equestrian skills
discovered when he was assigned under Washington. Lee gave the now famous line
that Washington was “first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of
his country.”[11] Thomas
Paine, the thinker and writer of Common Sense, gave a eulogy with “sighs
of contemporary gratitude.”[12]
Churches held sermons with prayers where people came from far away. Meeting
houses full of people held services where the commemoration of the death of
George Washington took place.[13]
These public orations denoted a ritual sense of dignitary loss, as well as,
according to Gerald E. Kahler, David Waldstreicher, and Simon P. Newman, held
political ramifications, and even priorities.[14]
Political poetry on the death of America’s Washington also included religious
connotations.
Simon P. Newman, Professor of History
at the University of Glasgow wrote and taught on Social and Political History
of early America and the British Atlantic World. He also wrote many articles
and received several grants for the subject. He has taught both undergraduate
and postgraduate courses in Scotland on American history.[15]
Newman’s book, Parades and the Politics of the Street: Festive
Culture in the Early American Republic’s chapter “The Partisan Politics of
Popular Leadership,” was on the idea that Washington held “considerable political
power” and that he “occupied a central position in early national political
rites and symbols.”[16]
He also said that others held partisan contests over the treatment and
celebration of Washington as a political figure as both a man and a symbol.[17]
At the time of Washington’s death brought the “contest over and within the
political culture of Washington to a climax.”[18]
David Waldstreicher agreed that
Washington, his effigy, and mourning events held political associations, but he
also argued that they also held a collective identity of American ideology and
citizenship.[19]
Waldstreicher held more of nationalism, “imagined community,” and grand events
were transformed into rituals by the local media, which were the newspapers.[20]
Waldstreicher’s view arrived while during his research as a historian of early
and 19th century America. His interests included Political History,
Cultural History, and Print Culture, which were evident in this piece. He has
written three other books, and was the Co-Editor of McNeil Center for Early
American Studies. He has also written papers and served on boards for the
subject of Early American Studies.[21]
Gerald E. Kahler wrote an entire
book on the memory of the death of President George Washington. Based upon the
doctoral dissertation and published by the University of Virginia Press, the
independent scholar has only the one book, but it has become a highly known
source very quickly.[22]
Kahler’s work “retrieves an unfamiliar and long forgotten story from the annals
of the early history of the American Republic… it narrates the prolonged
national mourning rituals for George Washington that moved thousands of
grieving Americans to tears and dominated American civic life.”[23]
Kahler asked what others had not “how extensive was the involvement of the
American people in the national mourning, and what emotions or sentiments were
they expressing as they participated?”[24]
He agreed that several thousand participated in state and local events. Kahler
agreed with Newman that there were politics involved. He also agreed that there
was nationalism. Fundamentally, he wrote of the many official and local;
carefully planned and organized and the spontaneous; verbal, physical, and
written; as well as the structured and natural rituals that took place
in assemblies, parades, and personal affections of the American people on the
death of Washington.
Gary Laderman’s argument in The
Sacred Remains: American Attitudes Toward Death, 1799-1883 was “the relation between the
reality of death… the material reality of the dead body... and how that reality
was represented in the imagination is critical to… cultural history.”[25]
Laderman stated that the events, especially the parades and funerals, were as
if the body was actually there. This had, according to Laderman, a “symbolic
importance and served the social solidarity of the new nation.”[26]
This account was similar to the nationalist theme of Waldstreicher, and rituals
of religion by Albanese. He also said that Washington was “deified in
the collective imagination of the young nation” and that there was symbols that
“linked Washington to the mythic themes at work in the republic.”[27]
He also said Washington’s death was ”transformed into a heroic event that
regenerated and rejuvenated the body politic.”[28]
Obviously, the mythic hero of Washington has survived his passing.
Gary Laderman,
Professor and Chairperson of the Department of Religion at Emory University
wrote at least four books on religion and death. His Ph.D. from California
State University, Santa Barbara was on Religious Studies. He has taught U.S.
Religious History; Mind, Medicine and Healing; Death and Dying; Theory and
Method; Introduction to Religion; Native American Religions; Health and
Healing; and American Religious Cultures.[29]
His study on the rituals of Washington’s and other contemporary deaths showed
Biblical comparisons and religious doctrines of death in literature and art of
the period.[30]
Paul Longmore
agreed that Washington was a political and deified myth. Longmore said that
most authors used eulogies to study Washington’s legend. However, he did not
give any authors that used any opposing views, he just reported on the
negatives of the authors. Longmore said the authors “ignored the importance in
the development of American civil religion of Washington as a providential
figure.”[31] He also
said that Washington was “divinely designated,” yet “God raised him up, but
then he had to rely primarily upon his own physical, mental and spiritual
resources.”[32]
Assemblies after mock
funerals where hundreds of people attended participated or listened to poetry
readings, music, eulogies and prayers. These poems weren’t just left in the
assemblies; they were also published in newspapers and in groupings later on
called Washingtonianas. Why was there death poetry? Reverend Robertson
answered, “Poetry is the natural language of excited feeling; Poetry is
the indirect expression of that which cannot be expressed directly.”[33]
Robertson helped develop the philosophical tenets of poets with the ideology of
the clerical office. Robertson and other clergymen influenced the appeal of
poetry to the eighteenth and nineteenth century working classes. Robertson
sermonized, “There is an element of poetry in us all.”[34]
Therefore, the appeal of poetry was not just for intellectuals, clergy, or the
well to do, but men of all classes enjoyed the release of feeling this art form
provided.
Robertson
confirmed, “Poetry has an elevating influence. It breaks the monotonous
flatness of existence by excitement. Its very essence is that it exalts us, and
puts us in a higher mood, than that in which we live habitually.”[35]
Since the new nation of the United States of America had never seen the death
of a leader before, an obvious way to express grief for many would have been
through writing. Poems obviously were used to lift the mood of remorse to one
of remembrance and glorification. Perhaps this was to forget any fear of the
future, or perhaps it was to venerate Washington the man into some sort of
worshipful being.
Most of the poetry
commemorated Washington as Columbia’s favorite son. But, who was Columbia? Poet
Phillis Wheatley, an African American slave in Boston wrote that other nations
envied “The generous Spirit that Columbia fires” in her poem entitled
“Columbia.” [36] This poem
honored Washington on his advancement to the position of Commander in Chief.
She was the first person to include Columbia in patriotic stance. It was the
first time Columbia was used in poetry and first time of the idea that the
lands of Columbia gave birth to her native son, Washington. Thus,
Columbia became a female figure of maternal and spirited nature. A great
eighteenth century fancy was to Greek and Roman-ize things. So, it could have
easily have moved to the idea that America became a Grecian style mother-war
goddess whose indomitable spirit lead her children forward into great
possibilities.[37] While
Wheatley wrote the first poem that connected Columbia with Washington, she was
not the last. Newman reported that there were over three hundred poems and
eulogies published for Washington, many of which had Columbia and Washington
together with religious themes in their verses.
Catherine L.
Albanese, professor of Comparative Religions and Research in American Religious
History at the University of California, Santa Barbara reported on religion’s
rules. She received her Ph.D. from the University of Chicago wrote three books
and numerous articles on the study American religion.[38]
In her book, America: Religion and Religions, she argued religion could
not be truly defined. However, there were two types of religion, ordinary
religion and extraordinary religion.
The first was the community religion, and those that lived within
boundaries. The latter involved an encounter with otherness, whether
natural or supernatural. Albanese said, “Religion is a feature that encompasses
all of human life,” whether formal or informal.[39]
Albanese remarked
that religion held universals and separates that defined whether or not actions
and/or beliefs were actually religion. Even though religion could not be
spelled out completely, there were still characterizations involved. One point
was that an individual’s body was a boundary. Words passed through lips; speech
or prayers were examples of passing through the body boundary. Temporal
boundaries was the difference between this world and another, by passing from
this life to the next, etc, It also included entering or exiting holy places
such as temples or shrines. The main similarity between all boundaries was that
they each held some sort of ritual or act, according to Albanese.[40]
According to Edwin
Gaustad and Leigh Schmidt in their work The Religious History of America:
The heart of the American Story from Colonial Times to Today there were
many different, wide-ranging, and diverse shapes of power that religion held in
the United States.[41]
Gaustad and Schmidt said Americans’ religion was not the same as everyone
else’s. Pluralism was the norm. Even with the Puritan theology, Gaustad and
Schmidt agreed “God, not humanity, was in charge of the universe, and from that
fundamental proposition all other theology must flow.”[42]
However, they also pointed out that other religious ideals held with mythology
over facts, and vice versa. There was also the controversial morality of one
system over another being part of religions. Another argument here was regions
held their own religious features peculiar a given region.[43]
And, along with that, faith, romantiscm, utopianism, and immigration held sway
as well. Gaustad and Schmidt wrote that the Greek Orthodoxy swelled in America
long before World War I. Their belief was to give allegiance, not to the Roman
papacy like that of the Roman Catholics, but to a national patriarch “who
usually resided in the capital city of the nation, was recognized with varying
degrees of consistency and fervency, as the true spiritual father.”[44]
Could this idea have been around at the time of Washington’s demise? This was
most probably true even without the large groups of these church members.
As a professor at
the University of California, Riverside, Edwin S. Gaustad, a noted church and
religion historian and one of the authors mentioned above, wrote over a dozen
other books.[45] Leigh
Schmidt studied under Gaustad and has been the Edward C. Mallinckrodt
Distinguished University Professor in the Humanities at Washington University
in St. Louis.[46] He was a
Professor of History of Religion in America at Harvard and Princeton, where he
was also Department of Religion Chair. Schmidt also wrote many books on
American religion, of which he won many awards, and has also served as editor
and co-editor for other books on religious history.[47]
History and hero
worship was a specialty of Thomas Carlyle’s. Carlyle was the most prominent
writer on the heroic in history of his day, and arguably today as well. Born in
1795, the Calvinist came to fame when he published Sartor Resartus in
the 1830’s. He was a Scotsman in the early and middle Victorian era writing in
England. He is still considered an expert on the subject of heroes and their
worship. Carlyle’s lectures and notes are still studied in many universities.[48]
Carlyle argued
great men made themselves into what they decided they wanted to be and gained
what they decided they wanted to gain. He said that history of what man has
accomplished was worth less than who that man was that did the deed. Carlyle
said “we cannot look, however imperfectly, upon a great man, without gaining
something by him. He is the living light fountain, which it is good and
pleasant to be near.”[49]
There were different areas in which the hero could manifest himself to the
world, according to Carlyle. The hero could be as divinity. He could be a hero
as a prophet. He could be hero as a poet, priest, man of letters, or poet
priest. Or, the hero could be a king as either a monarch or modern revolutionary
leader.[50]
Arguably, Washington as a hero was a combination of these divisions listed by
Carlyle.
While many of
these authors used eulogies, and possibly poetry as primary sources for their
research, this paper focused on the memento mori poetry to create an image of
the possibility of a Washington based social religion in America. There were
differences and similarities in the poems, but also in what historians agreed
upon. All Americans did not share the same context of religion and Washington’s
position therein. However, there was enough poetical evidence printed in the
contemporary newspapers which gave convincing evidence that there was a
Washingtonian social religion in the U.S. at the time of the President’s death.
Many poems were too long to include, yet could have categorized in one, or many
arguments within this paper. One such was Richard Alsop’s poem, “A Poem: Sacred
to the Memory of George Washington, Late President of the United States, and
Commander in Chief of the Armies of the United States…” (The title alone
continued on and on, and the poem itself was twenty-eight pages long.)[51]
Thus, this paper focused on several poems published in contemporary newspapers
that showed relationship of American Civil Religion and the death of George Washington.
Columbia’s fair daughters forever
shall mourn,
While Genius stands weeping at
Washington’s urn;
Let hope still support you, fair
daughter’s arise,
In faith that your Washington’s
soar’d to the skies,
Where still as your guardian he’ll
ever preside,
To virtue and goodness the pole
star and guide.[52]
-
Anonymous, Lines for a Miss, to Work Under an Urn of
Washington. 1800.
The lines above
were obviously written with the listener being a woman or girl with the idea
that her guardian rose to meet with God, and possible guardian angel. What does
the urn signify? Perhaps the urn was the neo-classical fixture that
commemorated the remains of the great man? This could not be the body itself
because it was safely buried at Mount Vernon. The main point was that Washington
was not gone forever, but in the Heavens as a guide forever.
Heavens welcomed
Washington as the father, friend of man, and Godlike, according to the
Gentlemen at most of the houses in Somerset, Pennsylvania. This idea resembles
the one above in that the general vision of father was the protector of the
family. The “friend of man,” and “Godlike” could be arguably a Christ figure in
the view of the poem.
Awake, ye slumb’ring friends from
sleep,
And join the melancholy song;
Awake, and with your country weep,
Its friend, great WASHINGTON is
gone!
Mourn hapless Brethren, deeply
mourn;
Your fource of ev’ry joy is fled;
Our father dear – The friend of
man,
The God like WASHINGTON is
DEAD!!![53]
- Gentlemen at
Most of the Houses in Somerset, Pennsylvania, Poetry. 1800.
The poem below
shows a different view of Washington. Here, the author(s) compare Washington
with great classical men whose fame will last so that future historians will
remember and write about him. The poem mentioned that Washington’s orb of bright
light was splendorous. The brightly glowing orb could be a reference to the
rising soul, such as a halo as seen around the heads of holy people in
religious paintings.[54]
The author represented America like the infant son, Christ, and Washington’s
“Godlike actions” cheered Christ as well as Columbia. Thus, this represented
Washington as God’s, and god’s child doing work that pleased Heaven.[55]
Because the Ancient and Honorable Company of Artillery was a military
organization, they would have wanted to venerate the man that made American
military history.
Of
Caesar’s Alexander’s fame,
In gorgeous style historians write;
But Washington’s illustrious name,
Reflects a clearer, steadier light:
-
Whose orb refulgent, while it
blaz’d,
Caught splendor from the clouds it
raised.
Great, noble, gen’rous, good and
brave; -
In war – in peace – he shone the
same; -
His deeds shall live through every
age,
And those unborn his praise
proclaim.
Time shall his glorious acts
enroll,
While Godlike actions charm the
soul.
He cheer’d Columbia’s darkest hour
–
He made her infant name rever’d: -
Confirm’d her laws, and fix’d her
power,
By Foes admir’d, by Faction fear’d.
Then thus shall sigh each patriot
son,
Peace to the
SHADE of WASHINGTON. [sic][56]
Anonymous, The
Fount. Commemorative Ode. In Honor of Washington; - Performed on the
Anniversary Choice of Officers of the Ancient and
Honorable Company of Artillery. 1800.
Another poem that
remembered the military and armies governed by the First President of the
United States featured offerings. This poem lifted Washington up as the Greeks
and Romans did their warriors. The ancients left offerings for their fallen
men, and this represented the same. Considered idolatry by or iconoclasm
depending on the Christian. It could also be a type of anthropolatry,
lordolatry, necrolatry, or archaeolatry.[57]
Let no obtrusive, no unhallowed eye
On which the rays of nature dimly
beam,
Let no cold mind fashion’d by
common themes,
No breath, that glows not with a
patriot’s zeal,
Presume to violate the peaceful
verse,
The pious offering
to a Hero’s shade.[58]
- American, To
the Memory of George Washington, General of the Armies, and First President of
the United States of America. 1800.
The next poem was
written to be the eight stanzas to the “well known Ode.” Unfortunately, the
exact Ode has been lost to time, and so therefore cannot be named. This poem
painted a portrait that made Washington a type of savior that entered
“Freedom’s temple,” which had been invaded by war, possibly warriors. In this portrait,
Washington was so great that he came from the sunlight in the Heavens. In this
poem, he was more like a god coming through an opening in Heaven and created a
shade by intercepting the sun as he descended to earth. As a type of godlike
man, he created a whirlwind and “vanquished the thunder” with his sword, almost
as an antithesis of Thor.
See the fierce storm of war
Freedom’s temple invade.
While a light breaks from heaven
thro’ clouds rent asunder,
On Glory’s bright furlough, ‘tis
WASHINGTON’s shade,
Descends through the whirlwind to
vanquish the thunder!
His sword from the sleep,
Of its seaboard doth leap,
And conducts with its point, every
flash to the deep.[59]
- Anonymous, Poetry.
Adams and Liberty. 1800.
The following poem
entitled “Original Poetry” brought the urn back into view, yet, had a twist to
the thesis point that was different than any of the other poems. Here, the
author had Washington surrounded by unholy men. Did this mean that Washington,
too, was unholy? Or, could it have meant the holy man left Earth only to leave
those unworthy behind? Numerous Christians would have easily understood this
concept. Was Washington only a man? The author did not include any word of
Heaven, God, or an afterlife. There was just an urn left, which reflected the
ideology of science instead of mysticism.
Methinks I hear one vast united cry
In tones of piercing anguish rent
the sky
Friendship in silent sorrow
friendship meets,
And melancholy seems to walk the
streets,
The smiling infant and the hoary
head
Proclaim aloud that WASHINGTON is
Dead!
Vernon, when fancy to the shades
retires,
What solemn thought the patriot
mind inspires!
Yon trees, which now the sighing
zephyrs fan,
Wav’d o’er the head of this
ILLUSTRIOUS MAN;
When, deep embosom’d in the shady wood,
He thought and ponder’d for his
country’s good;
Or let the heart-felt tear of pity
flow,
In pensive silence, for his
country’s woe:
Your lofty branches now in sorrow
wave,
And from unhallow’d footsteps guard
his grave.
With pious prayers we strove awhile
t’ avert
This fatal arrow from Columbia’s
heart---
We look for WASHINGTON, and find
his---
URN.[60]
- Anonymous, Original
Poetry, On the Death of Washington. 1800.
Nature was not
empty and so naturalists, romantics, and utopians loved the idea of including
the outdoors in their art. They all came together in the poem “On the Death of
Gen. George Washington.” Sacred shrines were introduced possibly a Jewish
altar, or pedestal of any other religion. Americans believed that God protected
the United States. Burning incense in the poem also had religious connections.
Incense masked smells during funeral rights. It has also been used in religious
ceremonies for centuries. Even Herodotus mentioned incense being offered on the
altar “every year, at the festival of the God.”[61]
COLUMBIA! Columbia! Thou beauteous
clime!
By heaven protected and nourish’d
thro’ time;
Still bless’d with mild peace,
whilst nations afar
Are feasting on carnage, and
crowding to war.
Here wisdom, and goodness, and
virtue expand,
And knowledge diffuses its light
o’er the land:
Whose flame unextinguish’d thro’
ages shall shine,
Whilst freedom, blest freedom,
Columbia, is thine!
A plant from the gardens of Rome
and of Greece,
To thee was entrusted to nourish in
peace;
By the care of our fires its
branches spread o’er,
And boldly defended, overshaded our
shore.
But soon the mad tyrant his legions
sent o’er,
His laws to enforce on our once
happy shore:
Our patriots arose, their standards
unfrl’d---
Proclaim’d Independence to this
western world.
‘Twas early in battle great Warren
was slain;
Montgomery and Mercer, each bled on
the plain!
Each feal’d with his blood this
immortal decree
“Columbia shall perish, or ever be
free.”
How oft when the flame of fierce
battle was spread,
Columbia has mourn’d o’er the
mountains of dead;
Has mourned the loss of some
fav’rite chief,
While despots and tyrants triumph’d
in her grief.
She now for her WASHINGTON makes
her sad moan,
Who to the armies of Heaven has
gone,
To join the grand triumph on that
happy shore,
Where trouble expires, and danger’s
no more.
See the deep mourning, hear the
loud sighs,
Which from our nation united arise;
All joy has expir’d, all transport
has fled---
All nature is mourning--- a
WASHINGTON dead!
See sacred altars with black
shrouded o’er---
See the rich laurel now dropp round
our shore---
The eagle in silence sits hov’ring
his urn,
And incense on altars of gratitude
burn.
In war or in peace our hearts he
could sway,
But utter his will and the nation
obey;
His name was sufficient our foes to
disarm—
His look was sufficient to bush
each alarm.
In vain we may search all the
universe round,
The like of our WASHINGTON cannot
be found:
Stars still appear when the moon
hides her head,
But who can be placed in
WASHINGTON’S stead
Let the glory of Caesar and Brutus
decay,
The fame of a Hampden and Tell fade
away:
As firm as creation stands
WASHINGTON’S fame,
And age after age will his glory
proclaim.
Come forward ye soldiers who fought
by his side---
Come heroes who’ve conquer’d where
heroes have dy’d---
Come tell to your children the
deeds he has done;
As a patriot and hero how greatly
he shone.
United we’ll go to the tomb of our
chief;
And chaunt songs of praise to
WASHINGTON’S name, [sic]
Who led us in triumph to freedom
and fame.[62]
- Anonymous, On
the Death of Gen. George Washington. 1800.
Washington’s fame
was not just because he was a war hero, but also because he was a true
Republican. He gave the crown back when it was offered to him. He believed in
independence, and Americans loved him for it. His quitting the position of
general was “by all his countrymen credited as originating in the purest
sentiments of truth and conscious fairness of intention.”[63]
Spelling out “The Real Republican,” created a poem whose meaning was obvious to
every reader.
T rue human dignity adorns his soul
-
H onor’s bright satellites around
him roll
E nvy alive – but lives at his
controul.
R eason directs his all important
aim -
E mbellishes his principles and
fame;
A man, to every human good allied,
L iberty his object! Truth his
guide.
R eligion deep imprinted on his
mind,
E nrob’d in virtues of a Christian
kind,
P ro beno publico, holds its abode,
U unfolding there the image of his
God;
B eneficent in heart – in Virtue’s
sphere
L oyal, disinterested, warm,
sincere;
I n human rights, a human RIGHT
requires,
C alms party tumults – quenches
FACTION’S fires
A ctive for useful ends – pursues
one plan,
N e’er to degrade the CHARACTER of
MAN.[64]
- Anonymous, An
Acrostic. 1800.
Another poem
placed nature along side the Christ-like idea of having the Earth and Heavens
stop because of Washington’s death. Jesus said “I will make rivers flow,” and
God turned “rivers into a desert.”[65]
The nations could mean the other nations in Europe, and tribes the Indians near
by. More likely, it held Biblical references to the neighboring tribes of in
Genesis where Ishmael’s descendants “lived in hostility toward all the tribes
related to them.”[66]
So, the author told America’s enemies, that a godly figure had passed and to
stop and pay reverence to him.
Mourn! Mourn, Columbia, mourn your
Chief!
Ah! Mourn forevermore!
Tell to the world thy tale of grief
–
They WASHINGTON’s NO MORE!
Our Father and Protector’s dead!
The Statesman is no more!
A deadly gloom is round us spread,
And darkness veils our shore!
Ye stars, withdraw your feeble
rays;
Ye rivers, cease to flow!
Ye bards, who often sung his
praise,
Now join the song of woe!
Ye nations, drop a friendly tear,
And mourn Columbia’s Chief!
Ye neighb’ring tribes, with hearts
sincere,
Partake our load of grief!
He’s gone! He’s gone! To realms
above –
To realms of pleasure, peace, and
love![67]
- Anonymous, Poetry.
From the New-Jersey Journal. On the Death of General George Washington.
1800.
The obvious
commonalities were grief, love and reverence. Washington’s name was capitalized
in its entirety, not just the first letter. God was only capitalized with the
first letter. A conclusive thought could be that Washington was more revered
than God. However, the themes made him seam more like he was a gift from God,
godlike, demigod, a mythical god, a classical hero.[68]
Unlike the Washingtonianas, most of the poetry was written anonymously, or by
the general public (or newspapermen?). This was substantial to the idea that
there was religious influence within the poems, so therefore there had to be
some sort of religious thoughts by the authors to generate those words.
Words of politics
were not the general theme of any of the memento mori poems. When there were
words that held political thoughts, they did not include anything obvious
that would encourage the reader to participate in one party or another, with
the excption of the words in “An Acrostic.” Gerald E. Kahler, David
Waldstreicher, and Simon P. Newman all said that there were political
ramifications of whether Washington’s death was used to promote ideals of
politicians. Each and every poem did include how wonderful Washington was as a
man and warrior. His deeds were even sanctioned by God. So, with that thought,
then following what the politicians said were Washington’s ideals, then
Americans would have been following God’s word.
Death poetry
promoted ideal deeds, which were grandiosely praised. They were nationalistic,
as Waldstreicher suggested, and the newspapers certainly turned these poems
into a type of American ideology that transformed the writing death poetry into
rituals that many newspapers, and Americans followed. Men sang the poems, such
as the Gentlemen at most of the houses in Somerset, Pennsylvania did. The
“famous Ode” was to have an additional stanza in the “Poetry Adams and
Liberty.”[69] This showed
the continuation of the nationalistic ritual of commemorative death poetry,
just as Waldstreicher insisted. The death poetry also proved Newman correct
with his point that of Washington holding considerable political power. Was the
poetry climactical? They might have held position in their community, but this
has not been shown within the words at this time.
Kahler’s argument
was right on track. However, the poems did not answer his question on how many
people participated. Poems included spontaneity of people dropping what they
were doing to mourn Washington as mentioned by the gentlemen.[70]
The American noted organized manners in the poem with his pious offerings.[71]
Kahler’s argument of nature and rituals were also within the death poetry. The
poetry itself was one such ritual. One ritual within the poems was the
“Chaunting [the] songs of praise to Washington’s name”[72]
Were the poems long forgotten? This author believes they were, but even Kahler
didn’t use them to their best advantage.
Religious and
cultural history was seen through the poems used, which definitely coincided
with Laderman’s argument. Reality represented through the imagination of each
author had its own truth. The manifestation of Washington as a mythical god
(Thor) could not have happened in the real world. Washington could not have
turned into an illuminating orb. Rivers did not stop running just because a man
died. Washington was a man, but the reverence given to him through poetry made
him more than just flesh and blood. This was just as Longmore said that
American writers did, and Robertson said poetry does because of excited feeling
needing to be expressed.
Carlyle expressed the idea that heroes could
be many different types of men, and could be worshipped as each type. He said
that the man created himself, which is what Longmore said of Washington. Death
poetry showed Washington as a hero-king in “The Fount” as he was better than
Caesar and Alexander.[73]
Washington was the hero-statesmen, but “the statesman is no more!”[74]
The hero as divinity was he coming down in the whirlwind and stopping thunder.[75]
While there were
some historians that have said that Americans did not have a civil religion
based around George Washington, the opposite can be argued successfully by
comparing memento mori poetry with Albanese’s guidelines for how she defined
Religion. The body boundary was the sighs of “each patriot son.”[76]
The temporal border was the burial of the body, the representative urn, and the
orb. The events after the mock funerals held music, eulogies and poetry, which
were the necessary rituals. The community religion of Washington memorials was
the fact that not everyone participated, but thousands did. The extraordinary
religion included “in faith… your
Washington soar’d to the skies.”[77]
Gaustad and
Schmidt’s impression of theology said not everyone’s religion was the same.
Their point that God was in charge of the universe was also seen in the
acrostic poem “An Acrostic.” Worshipping a patriarch in the capital city by
varying degrees was another Gaustad and Schmidt point. This, too, certainly fit
in with the different levels within the poems. Religions were different and
they held different beliefs and rituals. Gaustad and Schmidt’s features were
content of the memento mori poetry.
There has been no
sign within these particular poems of traditional domestic religion using
George Washington as a deity, demigod, or hero. There were some with that
indication that were too large to include in this study. However, even if those
works were included in this study, the fact remains that American religions,
worship practices, ideologies, and beliefs were never the same. The face of
superstition to one person has been doctrine to another. Spirituality
observance has been communal, but it has also been personal. Therefore, the
typical idea of what was known as a religion before, during, or after that time
cannot negate the worshipfulness of an American social religion based upon the
death of George Washington.
Americans mourned
death of President George Washington in different ways. One of the most visual
and audio arts was the memoriam poem. People remembered Washington as a man,
but romanticized him into more than just a human being. He became what the
author wanted. There were political propositioning within words and strains.
Washington was a hero-king, a hero-statesman, and hero-divine. After studying
George Washington’s memento mori poetry, this author has deduced that Americans
had their own social religion based upon the characteristics given by Albanese
, Gaustad and Schmidt and their determined criteria of what made religion a
religion.
[1] Miss Huntly,
“Serious Air and Chorus,” in New-Jersey Journal, (1799) in Genealogybank.
http://www.genealogybank.com/gbnk/newspapers/doc/v2:107661F0956FDE88@GBNEWS-10766B2894AA19A0@2378496-10766B28D2E67C58@1-10766B29EA647A60@/?search_terms=parade%7CWashington&s_dlid=DL0113121900322329768&s_ecproduct=SUB-Y-6995-R.IO-30&s_ecprodtype=RENEW-A-I&s_trackval=&s_siteloc=&s_referrer=&s_subterm=Subscription%20until%3A%2001%2F17%2F2014&s_docsbal=%20&s_subexpires=01%2F17%2F2014&s_docstart=&s_docsleft=&s_docsread=&s_username=taylorspeersims@yahoo.com&s_accountid=AC0113121820281521035&s_upgradeable=no
(accessed December 18, 2013)
[2] Margaret C. Conckling. Ed., Memoirs
of the Mother and Wife of Washington. Auburn:
Derby, Miller & Co., 1850. Kindle Edition.
[3] Herbert
Mitgang, “Death of a President: A 200-Year-Old Malpractice Debate,” The New
York Times. (December December 14, 1999)
http://www.nytimes.com/1999/12/14/health/death-of-a-president-a-200-year-old-malpractice-debate.html
(accessed December 18, 2013)
[4] Conckling.
[5] “The
Illustrious General George Washington, Commander in Chief of the Armies, and
Late President, of the United States of America, Died, mture in Years – Covered
with Glory, and Rich in the Affections of the American People,” “Mortuary
Notice,” Genius of Liberty: Morristown, NJ, Volume 2, Issue, 84, Page 2.
(1799) in Genealogybank.
http://www.genealogybank.com/gbnk/newspapers/doc/v2:11AA35598C5B25A0@GBNEWS-141FBA3592638500@2378491-141EFA5E808BA9E8@1-1423B605166C9315@No%20Headline/?search_terms=Washington%7CGeorge&s_dlid=DL0113122004490215708&s_ecproduct=SUB-Y-6995-R.IO-30&s_ecprodtype=RENEW-A-I&s_trackval=&s_siteloc=&s_referrer=&s_subterm=Subscription%20until%3A%2001%2F17%2F2014&s_docsbal=%20&s_subexpires=01%2F17%2F2014&s_docstart=&s_docsleft=&s_docsread=&s_username=taylorspeersims@yahoo.com&s_accountid=AC0113121820281521035&s_upgradeable=no
(accessed December 18, 2013)
[6] “Burial of
General Washington,” New Jersey State Gazette, Volume 1, Issue 44 (1799)
in Genealogybank. http://www.genealogybank.com/gbnk/newspapers/doc/v2:125D7D3503633318@GBNEWS-12729DC15A414C58@2378496-12729DC18C1333A8@1-12729DC20A666E08@Burial%20of%20General%20Washington%20George%20Town,%20December%2020/?search_terms=burial%7CWashington%7CGeorge&s_dlid=DL0113122005010421980&s_ecproduct=SUB-Y-6995-R.IO-30&s_ecprodtype=RENEW-A-I&s_trackval=&s_siteloc=&s_referrer=&s_subterm=Subscription%20until%3A%2001%2F17%2F2014&s_docsbal=%20&s_subexpires=01%2F17%2F2014&s_docstart=&s_docsleft=&s_docsread=&s_username=taylorspeersims@yahoo.com&s_accountid=AC0113121820281521035&s_upgradeable=no
(accessed December 18, 2013)
[7] “Funeral of
George Washington,” South-Carolina Gazette, (1800), in Genealogybank.
http://www.genealogybank.com/gbnk/newspapers/doc/v2:106AD2E50DD48700@GBNEWS-106EA73CA714C628@2378504-106EA73CF88DF7C6@1-106EA73E71B85CAA@Funeral%20of%20George%20Washington.%20George%20Town,%20Dec.%2020/?search_terms=funeral%7CWashington%7CGeorge&s_dlid=DL0113122005083425670&s_ecproduct=SUB-Y-6995-R.IO-30&s_ecprodtype=RENEW-A-I&s_trackval=&s_siteloc=&s_referrer=&s_subterm=Subscription%20until%3A%2001%2F17%2F2014&s_docsbal=%20&s_subexpires=01%2F17%2F2014&s_docstart=&s_docsleft=&s_docsread=&s_username=taylorspeersims@yahoo.com&s_accountid=AC0113121820281521035&s_upgradeable=no
(accessed December 18, 2013_)
[8] Ibid.
[9] Laurel
Thatcher Ulrich. A Midwife’s Tale: The Life of Martha Ballard, Based on Her
Diary, 1785-1812. (New York: Vintage Books, 1990), 32.
[10]
Carr, Benjamin. “Dead
March and Monody” Sheet Music. 1799. Lutheran Church of
Philadelphia, Philadelphia. in Jscholarship.
https://jscholarship.library.jhu.edu/handle/1774.2/3095 (accessed December 18,
2013)
[11]
Henry Lee, A Funeral Oration on the Death of George
Washington: Late President &
Commander in Chief of the Armies of the United
States of America. London: Button, Patternoster Row, et al., 1800.
[12] Thomas Paine, An Eulogy
on the Life of General George Washington. Newburyport:
Edmund M. Blunt, 1800. in “Lot #343: Thomas Paine’s
George Washington Eulogy”, 2012. Raynor’s Historical Collectible Auctions.
2012. http://www.hcaauctions.com/lot-30495.aspx (accessed October 16, 2013)
[13] Ulrich.
[14] Gerald E.
Kahler, The Long Farewell: Americans
Mourn the Death of George Washington.
(Charlottesville,
VA: University of Virginia Press, 2008); David Waldstreicher, In the Midst of Perpetual Fetes: The
Making of American Nationalism, 1776-1820. (Chapel Hill, NC: The University
of North Carolina Press, 1996); David Newman, Parades and the Politics of
the Street: Festive Culture in the Early
American Republic. (Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press, 1997)
[15] “Prof Simon
Newman,” “School of Humanities/Sgoil nan Daonnachdan,” University of Glasgow,
n.d. http://www.gla.ac.uk/schools/humanities/staff/simonnewman/ (accessed
December 18, 2013)
[17] Ibid.
[18] Ibid, 68.
[19] Waldstreicher, 9.
[20] Ibid, 10.
[21] “David
Waldstreicher,” “Department of History: People,” College of Liberal Arts,
Temple University. N.d.
http://www.temple.edu/history/waldstreicher/index.html (accessed December 18,
2013)
[22] Kahler,
Prologue, Inside back cover jacket.
[23] Ibid, 10.
[24] Ibid, 14.
[25] Gary Laderman, The Sacred
Remains: American Attitudes Toward Death, 1799-1883. (Preview) (New Haven,
CT: Yale University, 1996) http://books.google.com/books?id=1nsn4u05
CsEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gary+Laderman,+The+Sacred+remains:+American+Attitudes+Toward+Death,+1799-1883+Yale,+1996&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-Y5lUsytLI6I9ASQ64DYDw&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Gary%20Laderman%2C%20The%20Sacred%20remains%3A%20American%20Attitudes%20Toward%20Death%2C%201799-1883%20Yale%2C%201996&f=false
(accessed October 21, 2013)
[26] Ibid.
[27] Ibid.
[28] Ibid.
[29] “Faculty:
Gary M. Laderman,” Department of Religion: Emory University. N.d.
http://religion.emory.edu/faculty/laderman.html (accessed December 18, 2013)
[30] Laderman.
[31] Paul K.
Longmore, “The Enigma of George Washington: How did the Man Become the Myth?
George Washington: A Biography by John R. Alden: Cincinnatus: George
Washington and the Enlightenment by Garry Wills,” Reviews in American History
(1985) in JSTOR (2013) (accessed December 18, 2013)
[32] Ibid.
Paul Longmore was a historian and advocate for the
disabled. Holding a pen in his mouth and punching the keyboard with it wrote
his first book, The Invention of George Washington. The Longmore Amendment was
named after him and it was an increase in the amount of money that a person
with a disability can make and still receive benefits. He was a very
distinguested faculty member at San Francisco State University and challenged
the belief of assisted suicide. He died at the age of sixty-four in 2010.
Joseph Shapiro, “Paul Longmore, Historian and Advocate for the Disabled, Dies,”
Shots, Health News from NPR. (2010)
http://www.npr.org/blogs/health/2010/08/11/129127432/paul-longmore-historian-and-advocate-for-disabled-dies
(accessed December 18, 2013)
[33] Robertson,
“The Nature of Poetry,” The Crayon, (1860) in JSTOR. (2013)
http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy2.apus.edu/stable/pdfplus/25528012.pdf?&acceptTC=true&jpdConfirm=true
(accessed December 18, 2013)
[34] Ibid.
[35] “The Nature of Poetry,”
[36]
“The Name ‘Columbia.’,” “Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society,
Vol. II – Second Series. 1885-1886” (1886) Committee Publication. In Google
Books. https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=BaxpalYegj0C&printsec=frontcover&output=reader&authuser=0&hl=en&pg=GBS.PR5
(accessed November 18, 2013); Phillis Wheatley, ”Columbia” in “Liberty and
Peace” as quoted in Sondra A. O’Neale,
“Phillis Wheatley: 1753-1784”, Poetry Foundation. (2013),
http://www.poetryfoundation.org/bio/phillis-wheatley (accessed November 18,
2013)
[37]
Author’s speculation based upon history of “Columbia” with many poems leading
to ideals of Manifest destiny of American’s special virtues, re-make the west
in their own Anglo image, and the irrefutable destiny to accomplish and pursue
that way of life. See. Painting by John Gast called “American Progress.”
http://picturinghistory.gc.cuny.edu/item.php?item_id=180
[38] “Catherine
L. Albanese,” Department of Religious Studies, University of California, Santa
Barbara. (2013) http://www.religion.ucsb.edu/?page_id=1047 (accessed December
18, 2013)
[39] Catherine
L. Albanese, America: Religions and
Religion, 3rd ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1999), 2.
[40] Ibid, 2-6.
[41] Edwin Gaustad, and Leigh
Schmidt. The Religious History of America: The heart of the
American
Story from Colonial Times to Today. (New York: Harper Collins, 2002.)
[42] Ibid, 54.
[43] Ibid, 177.
[44] Ibid, 286.
[45] “Edwin S.
Gaustad, Biography”, Harper Collins Publishers. (2013)
http://www.harpercollins.com/author/index.aspx?authorID=3510 (accessed December
18, 2013)
[46] Gaustad,
ix-x.
[47] “Leigh E.
Schmidt,” “John C. Danforth Center on Religion and Politics,” Washington
University in St. Louis, (2013) http://rap.wustl.edu/bio/leigh-e-schmidt/
(accessed December 18, 2013)
[48] “Thomas
Carlyle Biography,” Bio. True Story. (2013)
http://www.biography.com/people/thomas-carlyle-9238527 (accessed December 18,
2013)
[49] Thomas Carlyle, “Lectures on Heroes.” On Heroes and Hero
Worship and the Heroic in
History. N.d. Kindle Edition.
[50] Ibid.
[51] “A Poem:
Sacred to the Memory of George Washington, Late President of the United States,
and Commander in Chief of the Armies of the United States, Richard Alsop
Author,” Amazon Prime. (2010)
http://www.amazon.com/sacred-Washington-president-commander-States/dp/1140919806/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1387538292&sr=8-1&keywords=A+Poem%3B+Sacred+to+the+Memory+of+George+Washington%2C+Late+President+of+the+United+States%2C+and+Commander+in+Chief+of+the+Armies+of+the+United+States.
(accessed December 18, 2013)
[52] “Lines for
a Miss, to Work Under an Urn of Washington,” New Hapshire Gazette,
(1800) in Genealogybank.
http://www.genealogybank.com/gbnk/newspapers/doc/v2:103709D225B248A8@GBNEWS-10420470371D30DB@2378692-10420470E78C970D@3-1042047234099AD1@/?search_terms=Washington&s_dlid=DL0113121821394703218&s_ecproduct=SUB-Y-6995-R.IO-30&s_ecprodtype=RENEW-A-I&s_trackval=&s_siteloc=&s_referrer=&s_subterm=Subscription%20until%3A%2001%2F17%2F2014&s_docsbal=%20&s_subexpires=01%2F17%2F2014&s_docstart=&s_docsleft=&s_docsread=&s_username=taylorspeersims@yahoo.com&s_accountid=AC0113121820281521035&s_upgradeable=no
(accessed December 18, 2013)
[53] Gentlemen
at Most of the Houses in Somerset, Pennsylvania, “Poetry,” Maryland Herald
(1800) Genealogybank.
http://www.genealogybank.com/gbnk/newspapers/doc/v2:109E3E65C279D5B8@GBNEWS-10B31206934F7370@2378512-10B3120708F57118@3-10B31207CC817E08@/?search_terms=Washington&s_dlid=DL0113121821173623985&s_ecproduct=SUB-Y-6995-R.IO-30&s_ecprodtype=RENEW-A-I&s_trackval=&s_siteloc=&s_referrer=&s_subterm=Subscription%20until%3A%2001%2F17%2F2014&s_docsbal=%20&s_subexpires=01%2F17%2F2014&s_docstart=&s_docsleft=&s_docsread=&s_username=taylorspeersims@yahoo.com&s_accountid=AC0113121820281521035&s_upgradeable=no
(accessed December 18, 2013)
[54] One example, amongst many
that show holy light and halos are in the painting, Last Supper, by
Tintoretto, (1594) Oil on canvas, San Giorgio Maggiore, Venice. as seen in
Kleiner, Fred S. Gardner's Art Through
the Ages: The Western Perspective, 13th ed., Vol. 2. (Boston:
Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2010), 615.
[55] “God” with
lower case “g” represented the neo-classic representation of America as the
Grecian-ized goddess.
[56] “The Fount.
Commemorative Ode. In Honor of Washington; - Performed on the Anniversary
Choice of Officers of the Ancient and Honorable Company of Artillery,” Columbia
Centinel, (1800) in Genealogybank.
http://www.genealogybank.com/gbnk/newspapers/doc/v2:1044E8FD0EBBC638@GBNEWS-10644D4B06D2BDAE@2378651-10644D4BA1D48336@3-10644D4DD0616508@/?search_terms=Washington&s_dlid=DL0113121821172923940&s_ecproduct=SUB-Y-6995-R.IO-30&s_ecprodtype=RENEW-A-I&s_trackval=&s_siteloc=&s_referrer=&s_subterm=Subscription%20until%3A%2001%2F17%2F2014&s_docsbal=%20&s_subexpires=01%2F17%2F2014&s_docstart=&s_docsleft=&s_docsread=&s_username=taylorspeersims@yahoo.com&s_accountid=AC0113121820281521035&s_upgradeable=no&s_dlid=DL0113122021555722243&s_ecproduct=SUB-Y-6995-R.IO-30&s_ecprodtype=RENEW-A-I&s_trackval=&s_siteloc=&s_referrer=&s_subterm=Subscription%20until%3A%2001%2F17%2F2014&s_docsbal=%20&s_subexpires=01%2F17%2F2014&s_docstart=&s_docsleft=&s_docsread=&s_username=taylorspeersims@yahoo.com&s_accountid=AC0113121820281521035&s_upgradeable=no
(accessed December 18, 2013)
Notice
the similarity in line eight to Lee’s famous line cited at footnote 11. The
Ancient and Honorable Company of Artillery was, and still is, a military
company that began around the year 1638 “to train young gentleman officers for
service in the various militias.” (note at end of footnote) It began as
militia, and then became an artillery unit. It is now several state service
organizations that participates in pomp and pageantry for events. BG Emery A.
Maddocks, Jr. quoted in “About,” Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company,
(2013).
http://www.ahac.us.com/about.htm (accessed December 18, 2013)
[57] Worship of
man, worship of nobles, worship of the dead, worship of archaic things or old
customs, in that order.
[58] American,
“To the Memory of George Washington, General of the Armies, and First President
of the United States of America,” Salem Gazette, (1800) Genealogybank.
http://www.genealogybank.com/gbnk/newspapers/doc/v2:1080E7A4DF561C28@GBNEWS-1084F5E44DE89BA0@2378555-1084F5E4C9F7AE78@3-1084F5E5DB8D8EF0@/?search_terms=temple%7CWashington&s_dlid=DL0113121900382100319&s_ecproduct=SUB-Y-6995-R.IO-30&s_ecprodtype=RENEW-A-I&s_trackval=&s_siteloc=&s_referrer=&s_subterm=Subscription%20until%3A%2001%2F17%2F2014&s_docsbal=%20&s_subexpires=01%2F17%2F2014&s_docstart=&s_docsleft=&s_docsread=&s_username=taylorspeersims@yahoo.com&s_accountid=AC0113121820281521035&s_upgradeable=no&s_dlid=DL0113122023195911327&s_ecproduct=SUB-Y-6995-R.IO-30&s_ecprodtype=RENEW-A-I&s_trackval=&s_siteloc=&s_referrer=&s_subterm=Subscription%20until%3A%2001%2F17%2F2014&s_docsbal=%20&s_subexpires=01%2F17%2F2014&s_docstart=&s_docsleft=&s_docsread=&s_username=taylorspeersims@yahoo.com&s_accountid=AC0113121820281521035&s_upgradeable=no
(accessed December 18, 2013)
[59]
“Poetry.Adams and Liberty.” Newburyport Herald, (1800) Genealogybank.
http://www.genealogybank.com/gbnk/newspapers/doc/v2:105F9E7C765DFFD0@GBNEWS-1077B739F950F558@2378828-1077B73A6D3BC1F8@3-1077B73B686AF838@/?search_terms=Poetry%7CAdams%7CLiberty%7CWashington&s_dlid=DL0113122104494622217&s_ecproduct=SUB-Y-6995-R.IO-30&s_ecprodtype=RENEW-A-I&s_trackval=&s_siteloc=&s_referrer=&s_subterm=Subscription%20until%3A%2001%2F17%2F2014&s_docsbal=%20&s_subexpires=01%2F17%2F2014&s_docstart=&s_docsleft=&s_docsread=&s_username=taylorspeersims@yahoo.com&s_accountid=AC0113121820281521035&s_upgradeable=no
(accessed December 20, 2013)
[60] “Original
Poetry, On the Death of Washington,” Providence Journal, and Town and
Country Advertiser, (1800) in Genealogybank.
http://www.genealogybank.com/gbnk/newspapers/doc/v2:10CF52C773D23470@GBNEWS-10EF6FE045053B88@2378497-10EF6FE10AB6B4D0@3-10EF6FE2AE4ED7D8@/?search_terms=Washington&s_dlid=DL0113121821261128794&s_ecproduct=SUB-Y-6995-R.IO-30&s_ecprodtype=RENEW-A-I&s_trackval=&s_siteloc=&s_referrer=&s_subterm=Subscription%20until%3A%2001%2F17%2F2014&s_docsbal=%20&s_subexpires=01%2F17%2F2014&s_docstart=&s_docsleft=&s_docsread=&s_username=taylorspeersims@yahoo.com&s_accountid=AC0113121820281521035&s_upgradeable=no
(accessed December 18, 2013)
[61] Herodotus, The
History of Herodotus, George Rawlinson, ed. (440 BC) in Fordham
University. (2013)
http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/ancient/aristotle-nico-eth.txt (accessed
December 20, 2013)
[62] “On the
Death of Gen. George Washington,” Weekly Museum, (1800), Genealogybank.
http://www.genealogybank.com/gbnk/newspapers/doc/v2:10DBE6518A0CEBF8@GBNEWS-10DBE63161644F30@2378577-10DBE6319D946EF8@1-10DBE6323A9C3620@/?search_terms=Washington&s_dlid=DL0113121821100919943&s_ecproduct=SUB-Y-6995-R.IO-30&s_ecprodtype=RENEW-A-I&s_trackval=&s_siteloc=&s_referrer=&s_subterm=Subscription%20until%3A%2001%2F17%2F2014&s_docsbal=%20&s_subexpires=01%2F17%2F2014&s_docstart=&s_docsleft=&s_docsread=&s_username=taylorspeersims@yahoo.com&s_accountid=AC0113121820281521035&s_upgradeable=no&s_dlid=DL0113122100094306040&s_ecproduct=SUB-Y-6995-R.IO-30&s_ecprodtype=RENEW-A-I&s_trackval=&s_siteloc=&s_referrer=&s_subterm=Subscription%20until%3A%2001%2F17%2F2014&s_docsbal=%20&s_subexpires=01%2F17%2F2014&s_docstart=&s_docsleft=&s_docsread=&s_username=taylorspeersims@yahoo.com&s_accountid=AC0113121820281521035&s_upgradeable=no
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Major
General Joseph Warren was killed at the
Battle of Bunker Hill and was the man that encouraged men of lower rank to hold
their ground against larger forces; Major General Richard Montgomery was born
in Ireland and graduated from Trinity College in Dublin. He joined the 17th
Regiment of Foot soldiers under General James Wolfe. He was stationed in New
York at the end of the French and Indian War. Montgomery was considered the
first of the Revolutionary War hero’s to many people. He was the one in charge
of the failed attack on Quebec, yet his death there was felt strongly by
everyone in the Second Continental Congress; Brigadier General Hugh Mercer
served as an assistant surgeon under Bonnie Prince Charlie in 1745. He moved to
America after joining Britain’s army, and became an apothecary. He died of
seven bayonet wounds at the Battle of Princeton. History.com (2013)
(accessed December 20, 2013)
[63] “The
following is the Whole of the New Arrangement,” New-Jersey Gazette,
(1784) Genealogybank.
http://www.genealogybank.com/gbnk/newspapers/doc/v2:109C9ECA40971B98@GBNEWS-10A23E059C626F08@2372749-10A23E05C02A2128@1-10A23E0654922CA0@The%20following%20is%20the%20Whole%20of%20the%20New%20Arrangement/?search_terms=refused%7Ccrown%7CWashington&s_dlid=DL0113122107105025870&s_ecproduct=SUB-Y-6995-R.IO-30&s_ecprodtype=RENEW-A-I&s_trackval=&s_siteloc=&s_referrer=&s_subterm=Subscription%20until%3A%2001%2F17%2F2014&s_docsbal=%20&s_subexpires=01%2F17%2F2014&s_docstart=&s_docsleft=&s_docsread=&s_username=taylorspeersims@yahoo.com&s_accountid=AC0113121820281521035&s_upgradeable=no
(accessed December 20, 2013)
[64] “An
Acrostic,” in “Genius of Science,” Genius of Liberty, (1800) in
Genealogybank.
http://www.genealogybank.com/gbnk/newspapers/doc/v2:11AA35598C5B25A0@GBNEWS-141FBA4A41D60050@2378722-141EFA5EF7917E90@3-14242AE460DA9EB2@No%20Headline/?search_terms=god%7CWashington&s_dlid=DL0113122104294711545&s_ecproduct=SUB-Y-6995-R.IO-30&s_ecprodtype=RENEW-A-I&s_trackval=&s_siteloc=&s_referrer=&s_subterm=Subscription%20until%3A%2001%2F17%2F2014&s_docsbal=%20&s_subexpires=01%2F17%2F2014&s_docstart=&s_docsleft=&s_docsread=&s_username=taylorspeersims@yahoo.com&s_accountid=AC0113121820281521035&s_upgradeable=no
(accessed December 20, 2013)
[65] Isaiah
41:18; Psalm 107:33, (New International Version Bible, 2011)
[66] Genesis
25:18. in Ibid.
[67] “Poetry.
From the New-Jersey Journal. On the Death of General George Washington.” Providence
Gazette, (1800), Genealogybank.
http://www.genealogybank.com/gbnk/newspapers/doc/v2:10380B58EB4A4298@GBNEWS-1056B475ED7049BD@2378500-1056B47665FA19C6@3-1056B477226F3DF8@/?search_terms=Washington&s_dlid=DL0113121822490108708&s_ecproduct=SUB-Y-6995-R.IO-30&s_ecprodtype=RENEW-A-I&s_trackval=&s_siteloc=&s_referrer=&s_subterm=Subscription%20until%3A%2001%2F17%2F2014&s_docsbal=%20&s_subexpires=01%2F17%2F2014&s_docstart=&s_docsleft=&s_docsread=&s_username=taylorspeersims@yahoo.com&s_accountid=AC0113121820281521035&s_upgradeable=no
(accessed December 18, 2013)
[68] Demigod is
half human, half god.
[69] “Poetry
Adams and Liberty.”
[70] Gentlemen.
[71] American.
[72] “On the
Death of Gen. George Washington.” The word Chaunting is spelled exactly as it
was in the paper, and obviously meant chanting.
[73] “The Fount”
[74] “Poetry.
From the New-Jersey Journal.”
[75]“Poetry.Adams
and Liberty.”
[76] “The Fount”
[77] “Lines for
a Miss.”
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“Phillis Wheatley: 1753-1784”, Poetry Foundation. 2013. http://www.poetryfoundation.org/bio/phillis-wheatley (accessed November 18, 2013)
Painting Credit:
http://readingworkbook.blogspot.com/2010/01/museum-better-known-as-us-capitol-from.html
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