Thursday, March 13, 2014

COLUMBIA CRIED The Poetic, Romantic,

COLUMBIA CRIED:

The Poetic, Romantic, and Enchanted Rituals
of Mourning for George Washington


Clark, T. “Washington Memorial Print” Paper and ink. June 1800. in Ketchum HouseThe
Morgan Library, Warwick Historical Society. New York. 
Taylor Speer-Sims
November 16, 2013
  
Immediately after Washington’s death, the country went into momentous deep, and profound grief. Each Americans approached grief for their leader with different expressions. They crafted their feelings into words which others identified with. Artistic testimonies of convicted loyalty leapt from the mourner’s pen to his paper. Washington’s death created an agony, which the nation’s people had never seen before. Anguish so great that commemoration of the man turned into its own social religion.

But who shall venture with presumption rude.
On sorrow's sacred silence to intrude;
May no rash voice disturb that deep repose.
Afflicted Mourner hallow'd be thy woes![1]

                                                                                      - Richard Alsop, A Poem ca.1799-1800
Never before had any American felt the death of a national leader. There was true and honest feeling from Columbia’s children, and they publicly demonstrated it. Streets appeared with classically religious like processions that led the way to a temple just like those of old. The news of George Washington’s death created a land that was completely consumed by mourning for their lost “brother, father, saint, and savior.”[2] Men and women, rich and poor, commemorated his or her sorrow by writing poetry. By romanticizing the past, Columbia’s children compared Washington with classical and Biblical heroes. Americans thought Washington stood with the greatest men throughout time and showed their admiration with poetry.[3]
The custom of mourning poetry was “undeniable,” William Francis Wilkinson believed “prayer for the dead an holy and good thought.”[4] He went on to say, “prayer for the departed was universal practice of the Church of Christ from the time of the Apostles, [was] quite clear.”[5] Quietus prose expressed a need to have a sacred being within the midst of humans. Death and funerals were commonplace in the eighteenth century, said Charles O. Jackson.[6]One person’s death in a community held a sense of bereavement for everyone.[7] Gary Laderman reminded “the dead also return to the imagination of the living through mechanisms that exist outside the logic of conventional religious discourse and popular expressions in various media.”[8]
Expressions of grief went back before Biblical times. “Enoch’s exemption from the common death of mankind, was indeed the special reward of his faith…”[9] Archaic muses and saints were celebrated in feasts and merriment. Classical heroes paraded their courageous deeds through towns and cities with arches as commemorations. Gifts, songs and poetry were the worshippers symbols of love to their demigod, who was born of a god and human.
Men and women all over the country revered Washington. Not only did he have strength, he also had patience. Reportedly, no one had ever heard him yell.[10] Washington was a political genius and men from all political sides loved him, if not his party. People loved to be around him and listen to him in his quiet voice.[11] He cared for others with a sense of paternal love.[12] Washington was the Paterfamilias of the nation.[13]
Because Washington led the American men into victory in the Revolutionary War, many considered him the “savior of the country.”[14] The American public began to deify him. Poems mention his being the savior of the country, the savior of the people. Worshippers visited and laid wreaths or flowers at commemorative hoping that he would live forever in thoughts and deeds of Americans to come.[15] Thrones of memorialization came in many sizes, shapes, and times. Bishop Carroll warned that worshipping Washington the man was idolatry, and should not be considered.[16] But were Americans really worshipping Washington as God, a demigod, or a god among men?
If Washington was a god, was he a pagan god? Indeed, he was the idealization of an American man. His accomplishments were greater than any living American could remember. Everyone hoped to have the honor of knowing him. He did not belong to any of the old countries. Washington was Columbia’s flesh and blood. Even if he was not a deity himself, he surely was a gift from God. Americans compared him to other Biblical heroes, second only to Jesus.[17]
Americans rushed to honor their dead President with Parades. Processions of many (up to four thousand in Philadelphia) men, women, and children marched down their town streets. Many of these events also had women in white. Americanized Grecian goddesses represented the personification of Columbia walked in their loose gauzy gowns, hair down and flowing. These Columbianas met the spiritual needs of the American public by being a visual representation of reverence for Washington. Women supposedly felt more deeply then men. So, the young maid’s “private virtues now had a public relevance.”[18]

Other women in white dresses wore black armbands or a black rose on the left breast, which symbolized their spiritualist movement.[19] Columbia’s children, both male and female, felt a need to connect with their lost leader.[20] Washington staged elaborate tours, and was very formal in dress, manor, and speaking; yet all Americans felt that they knew him.[21] People of all positions in society wrote eulogies, memorials, lyrics, and poetry to the memory of the great man.
Writings asked questions. They searched the soul of each writer. They reached to answer what lay beyond death. They asked, “is there light in the darkness?” By connecting Washington with nature and the supernatural, they wanted to express their own views of death.[22]  Was George Washington the only muse of America as a nation?[23] Will there be no peace or happiness now that the Washington’s light was gone?
The nation mourned their former President for a “required” time by governmental order and was accepted by all. Small pockets mourned for six months or longer. Businesses closed down. Schools let kids out, and even held memorials. Children received new clothing specifically for honorific occasions. Churches held public sermons and also had guest speakers. About 60% of the white populace attended church on a regular basis. However, this percentage probably increased during special services and events that eulogized Washington.[24] There were memorials almost everywhere for six months. Many local communities had some sort of memorial as late as one year later. The nation obsessed with their leader’s death tried to commune with public mourning rituals and private prose.
Washington was seen in neo-classic forms as god, demigod, saint and hero. He was Christianized as God and Christ-like idol, a gift from God, Saint, and Christian. Mystics, deists, and the enlightenment had an impact on American’s view of the deceased leader. The anti-government and anti-organized religion Romantics venerated Washington with aesthetically beautiful words of majesty. As seen through commemorative mourning poetry, American social religion held Washington in specific categorical doctrines of neo-classic, Biblical, and new philosophical roles.
Washington’s death, around ten o’clock in the evening on December 14, 1899 created a monumental sense of mourning. Contrary to popular oral tradition, he did not die on the last hour of the day, the last day of the month, of the last month of the year, of the last decade of the millennium.[25] Americans liked to embellish the past, and make deeds appear greater or worse and then they actually were. Therefore, wouldn’t it had been the natural next step to glamorize Washington’s death? In fact, romanticized lamentations flew through the populace.

            From Heaven the awful mandate flies-
            The Father of his country dies.[26]

                                                Proceedings in Connecticut, ca. 1799-1800


Washington’s funeral was held on December 18, 1799 did not include a large group of people.[27] News trickled slowly through the country due to distance and roads. Weeks or months passed before people realized that Washington was dead, depending on where they were in the country.  Processions of “silent dejection and unspeakable anguish,” noted a newspaperman, were “painted in the countenances of all.”[28] The faithful, “under the most afflicting circumstances,” held national, local, and personal reverential services.[29]
A national day of mourning suggested by Congress to show respect and honor to the Father of the Country to President Adams for agreement. Of course he agreed, and so “Of [the] legislators, to whose labors and honors he was associated by all that was useful and dignified,” created December 27, 1799 the national day of mourning.[30] Funeral parades and services where an empty pier, firing guns, trumpeters playing, and a horse with empty boots turned backwards in the stirrups gave physical evidence where there had been none.[31]

            Columbia’s Sons may now lament,
            Their spear is broke, their bow unbent,
            Their glory fled:
            Amongst the dead Great Washington lies,
            Forever closed his eyes.[32]

                        - Sang by Miss Huntly, Funeral Honors by Government, (1799)
            Who was Columbia? Poet Phillis Wheatley, an African American slave in Boston wrote that other nations envied “The generous Spirit that Columbia fires” in her poem entitled “Columbia.” [33] This poem honored Washington on his advancement to the position of Commander in Chief. She was the first person to include Columbia in patriotic stance, and it was the first time used in poetry. This could be the first instance, as well as the reason for, the idea that the lands of Columbia gave birth to her native son. Thus, she became a female figure of maternal and spirited nature. A great eighteenth century fancy was to Greek and Romanize things. Therefore it could have been easily followed to the conclusion that the motherland became a Grecian style mother-war goddess whose indomitable spirit lead her children forward into great possibilities.[34]
While Wheatley wrote the first poem that connected Columbia with Washington, she was not the last. Newman reported that there were over three hundred eulogies published for Washington. She did not give accounting of any other types of written memorials. These reported here may be the only ones, or, there could be hundreds of them, but that has not been substantiated. Lamenter poetry held Columbia grieving and weeping. Alsop’s poetry held Columbia with deep sorrow in many refrains: “Columbia weeps her guardian genius fled;” /“Thou found’st Columbia sunk in pale decay;”/ and “To plunge Columbia in the dire astray” were all written within just one poem. [35]

                        Sons of Columbia, now lament,
                        Your spear is broke, your bow’s unbent
                        Tour glory’s fled
                        Anongst the dead;
                        Your Hero lies
                        Ever, forever, clos’d his eyes.

Columbia weep! Weep still in louder moan,
                        Your Hero, Patriot, Friend and Father’s gone.[36]
-         Anacreontic and Philharmonic Societies, Words of Sacred Music, ca. 1799.
Columbia groans beneath the dreadful wound,
And Europe echoes to the mournful sound;
The Sons of Freedom shudder at the stroke,
And Universal Virtue feels a shock!![37]
- Anonymous, Gen. Washington, 1799.

“Again to weep, again to bid adieu,”[38] townspeople again and again cried as they chose to mourn far past the National Day. In fact, many areas did not find out that Washington was dead until after the New Year. Local parades and fetes occurred everywhere after the first of January, 1800. Phillippe Airees argued that Christians “must live and evolve spiritually, moderation is not merely sensible behavior, it becomes a cardinal virtue.”[39] However, Christians throughout the country surrendered this ordination and succumbed to the hedonistic rituals of formalized reverence. Washington became more popular than anyone could remember. His memorial parades resembled religious demonstrations, especially those that included religiously significant people, such as a Pope or a theocratic religious leader. Federalists used the events to get pledges to their Cult of Washington, with hopes recruiting them into their governmental philosophy.[40] Parade participants marched in ritualistic order, beginning with the highest respected members leading the way. Following the military escort, Martha Ballard reported that she saw approximately “sixteen misses clad in white, with “black hats and cloaks and white scarves.” [41]
Ann Braude, the director of Women’s Studies in Religion at Harvard Divinity School wrote Victorian Spiritualists wore “white at funerals by transforming internments into events that emphasized continuity, rather than the finality of death.”[42]  Spiritualist mourners wanted “intimate contact with the dead.”[43] Wearing white at funerals occurred well before then, and was included within Christian thought and prayer …

May the triumphant army of martyrs,
Clad in white robes, come out to meet thee…”[44]

-         William Francis Wilkinson, Commendation of a Departing Soul, 1845.
Ladies’ fashion at that time appeared Grecian inspired, and the neo-classic being en vogue, anyway, women did not have a lot of change to make in their wardrobe. The white robed women appeared Grecian or Roman celestial beings. They were the humanization of the American created Greek goddess. Columbia’s virgin priestesses “and choirs of white robed virgins sing his welcome and his praise.”[45]

                        Strew, vir-gins, the cy-press ov’r Wa-shing-ton’s bier. -
                        Whilst em-blems of sor-row excite the big tear.[46]

-Music by Johann Heinrich Rolle, nd.,  Lyric author, Anonymous, Strew, Virgins, they
Cypress, ca. 1800

Even before his death, a Trenton newspaper reported, “three of the choir of young girls who, dressed in white greeted Washington as he entered” town.”[47] Apparently thirty –three clergymen wearing white scarves, twenty-four girls in white robes with white surpluses, ladies dressed in white gowns with white veils, scarves, wreaths, “who arranged [the] misses, as described in the order of procession [with] their wreaths hanging in festoons in front of the of the gallery.”[48] More mystic style poetry revealed the hope of Washington arising with:

                        Angels ever bright and fair,
                        Take, O take him to your care,
                        Speed your own courts his flight.
                        Clad in robes of heavenly white![49]

                                    -Anonymous, Angels Ever Bright and Fair, 1800.
 The Reverend Br. Dr. Walter presented these offerings after their “procession moved to the stone chapel where the “flowers were then strewed and the cassia deposited” as if these neo-classic priestesses celebrated Washington as a neo-classic god.[50] Obviously, even the Christian leaders felt the pagan draw as George W. Bethune wrote his poem with apropos situation.

            No more at Delos, or at Delphi now,
            Or even at mighty Ammon’s Lybian Shrine, [sic]
The white-robed priests before the altar bow,
            To slay the victim and to pour the wine,
            While gifts of kingdoms round each pillar twine;
            Scarce can the classic pilgrim, sweeping free
            From the dim names of their divinity-
            Gods of the ruined temples, where, oh! Where are ye?[51]

                                    - Geo. W. Bethune, Invocation, nd.
If the clergy rationalized the neo-classic religious experience, then obviously regular Americans saw Washington as a neo-classic god. Both Washington and his wife were “transformed … into marble figures of rectitude whose dignity and decorum fostered a sense of legitimacy for the new country.”[52]  A popular image of weeping mortals at an alter bearing Washington’s image appeared in a print with possibly Columbia pointing to the sky.[53] Revering his image as the ancients worshipped the seasons, Greeks worshipped statues, Egyptians worshipped cats, all hoping to have their divine influence bestowed upon the mere mortals requesting it.

                        When stern oppression o’er Columbia’s plains,
In pride exulting shook her ready chains.
                        ……………………………………………………………………….
                        On thee thy country turn’d an eye of hope.
                        In thee she saw her shield,
                        Her firmest prop.
                        Gave thee her raw untutor’d bands to guide,
                        Yet, new to scenes of blood, in arms untried.[54]

-         Richard Alsop, Sacred to the Memory of George Washington, (1800)
Columbia’s genius to her tomb repairs,
Deep, deep the gloom, her brow majestic wears!
Fix’d to the Sacred spot the mourner stands,
And views with frenzied glare her marial bands:
Recalls that form, which long before them strode,
With soul, and source, and motion, like a god,
And sees that sword, which when a foe was nigh,
Flam’d like Jove’s lightning darting thro’ the sky.[55]

- John Lathrop, Monody, ca. 1799-1800

The two poems above were written from Columbia’s, (the Americanized Grecian goddess), point of view, while the one below from a person’s.  In “Monody,” Columbia, who was America herself, stared off into the horizon lamenting Washington’s death. She looked back memorializing the time when Washington, her demigod, smote America’s great enemy, King George III and the English military. “Columbia smiling, crowns her son with bays” at every victory.[56] The poem below hallowed Washington as a demigod, but this time viewed from a human point of view.

By coming glories, and his nation hush’d
As though they heard the farewell of a god-
A great man is to earth as God to heaven.[57]                                 
-Wallace, Words of Wallace, ca. 1799-1800
Washington, the Neo-classic savior, “having reached the summit of human perfection,” appeared celestial and magnificent in prose.[58] Accounts of others assisting with the liberty of the nation all fell below the horizon as Washington’s assistance in the annexation became grandiose. All of his failures were forgiven or forgotten as Americans realized what they had lost. He had been a half-man/half-god who led them from bondage to the “land of milk and honey.”[59] “Columbia’s Savior is no more” was a constant strain for the poetry reviewed, especially from Thomas Pain.[60]

            O for a muse of fire, that would ascend
            The brightest heaven of invention!
            An empire for a stage, heroes to act,
            And angels to behold the swelling scene!
            Then should the MIGHTY SHADE again assume
            His local habitation, and his name,
            Mantling our sphere with his supernal glory!
            Virtue and Fame Should pioneer his way
            Through planets wonder-struck; while at his heels
            Valour and Victory (Leasht in like hounds)
            Crouch for employment![61]
- Thomas Paine, An Eulogy on the Life of General George Washington, 1800.[62]
Columbia’s sons likened Washington to Historical, Biblical, and classical men in rhyme and reason.[63] He was as great as a Greek god. He was as tough as a Roman hero. Charles Caldwell compared Washington to Caesar, Cato, Cyrus, Fabius, Achilles, Scipio, Cincinnatus, Hector and Ulysses.[64] No man in history could stand next to Washington without being overshadowed. Even Biblical heavyweights found themselves compared to.

            Must our beloved Washington then die?
            Where is the chariot, where the steeds of fire.
            Which bore Elijah to his Heavenly Sire?[65]
- John Lovett, Star-Deck’d Standards, ca. 1799-1800.[66]
            A nation’s annuls, on historic page,
            Oft point the advent of a better reign:-
            With Pericles there came the golden age,
            With Moses Israel broke her bondage chain.
            ……………………………………………..
            He wore the seal of promise on his face:
            Peer of fair Egypt’s found, adopted one;
            And the high virtues of a lyal race
            Were born in him, Virginia’s worthy son.[67]
            -  James M. Washington Stewart, The Hero and Statesman. Eulogy, 1888.
Both Caesar and Washington were great military leaders. Both men led troops who respected and admired their leader. Caesar requested a triumphal, but was refused. Washington never asked, yet received a “march tri-um-phal,” in prose and in America’s hearts.[68] King Minos’ only son traveled to Athens for the sports games, and won all the contests against his Greek contestants. Androgeos, son of Minos, was awarded with “song and dance and laurel crown.”[69] “A lau-rel wreath th’m-mor-tal War-ren bears” for Washington to wear for his victories.[70] Androgeos lost his life to his opponents, though all admired Washington.

            Deign, Washington, to hear a British lyre,
            That ardent hero homage pays.
            O’ would the muse immortal strains inspire,
            That high beyond all Greek and Roman fame,
            Might soar to times unborn, thy purer, nobler name![71]
                        - John Aikins, Tribute to Washington, ca. 1799-1800.
   Revering the Name Washington became so grandiose, that he became godlike. Direct blaspheme hid within rhymes. Subtle, or not so subtle, hints sprinkled from one author to another. Poems included godlike actions that no mere mortal could have produced.

            When war with bloody hand her flag unfurl’d
            And her loud trump alarm’d the Western World;
            His awful voice bade all contention cease,
            At his command the storms were hushed to peace.[72]

-         Anonomous, New Year’s Address of a Hartford Paper, 1800
A Revolutionary War veteran, Oliver Holden, founded his own church in Charlestown, Massachusetts, and gave American’s another godlike comparison of Washington. He wrote a composition, A Dirge, or Sepulchral Service, for a memorial service for George Washington in 1800.[73]   Oliver Holden’s words gave reminiscent to the painting of Christ, Anastasis, apse in the Parekklesion  of the Church of Christ, The Assumption of The Virgin by Titian, or a combination of the two.[74] An argument could be that this was a common theme in religious iconography. That is true, but Americans were Christian during the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century. Therefore, this author pursued the godlike comparison.

            From Vernon’s Mount behold the HERO rise,
            Resplendent forms attend him through the skies.[75]
                        - Oliver Holden, From Vernon’s Mount Behold the Hero Rise, 1794.
Francis Adrian Van Der Kemp, the Dutch patriot and Mennonite minister was credited for giving the Revolution a Christian hue. He was a friend to Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton and Benjamin Franklin.[76] With his righteous views, he still exalted Washington through blasphemous lines. He spelled out “George Washington” and gave glorified description that he may have condemned him as heretic.

            G lorious as the Orb of day,
            E xpelling darkness with ray,
            O ‘n all the nations shedding joy;
            R esound his virtues, - spred his fame,
            G rateful, record th’ illustrious Name;[77]
            E v’ry tongue his praise employ.

            W hat nation round this spacious earth
            A dorn’d by such a Hero’s birth?
            S hall we not then his death bemoan?[78]
            H ail him! Ye angels, on his way.
            I llume his path, AUTHOR of day.
            N ote him, ye Seraphs, round the throne,
G o down, my soul, - lament thy loss,
T hy mournful country sits in tears,
O n ev’ry heart his Name emboss;
N or let it be effac’d by years.[79]
- Francis Adrian Van Der Kemp, Eulogy of George Washington, 1800.
God the Son was also represented in contemporary mourning poetry. The Christian Bible prophesied their Lord’s birth during a dark night. Another part announced a bright star, which beckoned the Magi to Christ’s side.[80] Words that tell the same scene are in the below poem.

There is an awful stillness in the sky
When, after wondrous deeds and light supreme,
A star goes out in golden prophecy.
There is an awful stillness in the world,
When, after wondrous deeds and light supreme[81]

                                                            -Wallace, Words of Wallace, ca. 1799-1800

                        From Vernon’s Mount behold the Hero rise![82]
                        Resplendent forms, attend him thro’ the skies.
                        …………………………………………………
                        With port majestic guides the glittering car,
                        Montgomery’s godlike form directs the way,[83]
                        And Green unfolds the gates of endless day!
            While angels, “Trumpet-tongued,” proclaim thro’ air,
                        “Due honors for the FIRST OF MEN prepare.”[84]

-Samuel Sower, Mature in Years, Covered with Glory, and Rich in the Affections of
the American People, 1799

Washington, the savior of an infant nation was another ideal of the man. He was commemorated as “savior” and “guardian angel.” Watching over the people of America was the general theme. Perhaps the Calvinist doctrine of only “limited atonement” still held on to American’s thoughts.[85] So being afraid of not being a chosen one, they searched for additional protection because divine protection was only for the gifted. Washington was dead, so prayers to keep him in an attendant position seemed rational.

                        His mind was tranquil and serene,
                        No terrors in his looks were seen,
                        A Saviour’s smile dispell’d the gloom,
                        And smoth’d his passage to the tomb.[86]
                                               
- Henry Holcombe, A Sermon Occasioned by the Death of Washington, 1800

Seated in bliss supreme on high
            O spirit dear attend our pray’r.
            Our guardian angel still be nigh
            Make thy lov’d land thy heav’nly care.[87]
            - Benjamin Carr, Dead March and Monody, 1799
Angels and death have been a combination from Biblical times. They brought messages from God to mankind. Sometimes, God’s gift to mankind came along. Washington was obviously a blessed man. Mourning poetry demonstrated Washington as God’s gift and sometimes as a priest. In any case, he was certainly blessed and did God’s work.

            So When on angel by divine command,
            With rising tempests shakes a guilty Land,
            Such as of late o’er pale Britannia past,
Calm and serene he drives the furious blast,
And pleas’d the Almighty’s orders to perform,
Rides in the whirlwind and directs the storm.[88]
- Anonymous, Addison’s Campaign, ca. 1799-1800
Whilst he, in heaven, mids sainted souls is blest!
                        Shall we, with unavailing woe,
                        Lament the Hero’s everlasting fest?
                        No, dry each tear, each grief remove,
                        Great Washington is blest above.[89]
                                    - John S. Gardner, Hymn, 1800.
            If Washington was God, then who was King George III? Was he a madman or the Anti-Christ? Obviously George III did not want to give up any territory. The English actually wanted to conquer more land. The President fought against a terrible foe to keep them from consuming Columbia’s consecrated lands.. Washington fought against the king where everyone would see the monarch as a destroyer.

See Attila his course of havoc lead!
O’r Asia’s realms in one vast ruin hrl’d, [90]
See furious Zingo’s bloody flag unfurled.[91]

                                    - Richard Alsop, Sacred to the Memory of George Washington, (1800)
Alsop implicated King George III as Satan, as well. This, then, punctuated the idea of Washington’s reverence. Glorified Washington as savior seemed the natural consequence.

                        Or crafty serpent’s subtleties display,
                        Nor e’er seduc’d let discord’s fiends abhorr’d
                        Temp you to draw the parricidal sword,[92]
                        Your country’s breast to wound with mortal blow.[93]

- Richard Alsop, Extract from a poem, Sacred to the Memory of George Washington, (1800)
Americans were warned not to venerate Washington the man. Idolatry lay down that road. John Stoughton said “it is the impertiness of men thrusting their own words into articles instead of the words of God.”[94] Giving meanings upon the Words of God that were not true, and giving significance to a person when that reverence should be Christ’s. That absolutely was idolatry. Only by attributing Washington’s deeds to God, was it acceptable to bolster the man.

                        Ay, leave him alone to sleep forever,
                        Till the strong archangel calls for the dead,
                        By the verdant bank of that rushing river,
                        Where first they pillowed his mighty head.[95]  
-         Benson John Lossing, Sentiment of Every American, 1871.[96]
Great God of hosts! We own thy sway,
Nor dare thy will explore;[97]
But when thy judgements we survey,
We tremble and adore.
Thy potent hand hath far remov’d
The Man of war, and might:
The Prudent, Ancient, and Belov’d,
Sinks to the shades of night.
To Thee we lift our sorrowing eyes,
To Thee for aid repair;
Hve pity on a Nation’s sighs,
And listen to her prayer.
- Anonymous, Hymm Composed and Sung at Cambridge, ca. 1799-1800
             

The nation’s religious freedom was paramount, as it “provided for the freedom of religion but also the freedom from religion.”[98]  Romantics were the beatniks of the turn of the nineteenth century. Romantic philosophies pulsated against governmental control and standardized religion. Charles Batten inferred there were very few adventurers that chose “tourism for the Purpose of Enjoying Scenery” and to feel a  “rapturous response to nature” that Romantics needed.[99]
Romantics believed that people should be left alone to pursue feelings. Romantic poems were “often described as the most essentially poetic of all the genres.”[100] Poets writing in this genre wanted “self-revelation by inviting his audience to equate the heroes…experiences as disclosing the deep truths of his [own] secret self.”[101] The Romantics lamented, “For nature’s treasure’s lost!” and never to return.[102] Thus, tributes to Washington’s memory connected him with seasons, flora, and fauna.

1.      The Daughters of America shall long lament they loss
2.      He was acceptable as the return of spring.
3.      He was ornamental as the flowers of summer.
4.      He was beneficial as the fruits of autumn.
5.      He was terrible to oppressors as the storms of winter.
6.      Washington was a stately oak.
7.      Washington as a sun illuminated the western hemisphere.
8.      The sun set, and gloom o’erspread the land.
9.      Washington sleeps with his fathers.
10.  Let the willow shade his grave.
11.  Let the grass mantle it.
12.  Let the fragrant herb perfume.
- Anonymous, Alexandria, VA: Proceedings in Virginia 1800
            Mourn, mourn all ye winds and –
            Weep ye – floods,
            Mourn, mourn and bow
            Your heads-
            Ye tow’r- in-woods:
            Your he-ro,
            Your he-ro,
            Your he-ro’s gone.[103]
                        George K. Jackson, Dirge for General Washington, ca. 1799-1800.

Washington was a great leader, a hero, and a sage in memoriam poetry. David Waldstreicher argued that Washington was the “preeminent national hero, whose death … only increased his nonpartisan potential.”[104] Poems represented heroic deeds and political prowess. Washington’s accomplishments were just too many to calculate.
            To count them all, demands a thousand tongues,
            A throat of brass, and adamantine lungs.[105]
                        - Lunt, Men, Brethren, and Fathers!, 1799.

To recount all the plans by his wisdom contriv’d,
                        Or the deeds by his conduct and valour achiev’d,
                        Were to number the gems that heaven’s concave adorn,[106]
-         Jonathan Mitchel Sewall, Men, Brethren, and Fathers!, 1799

            A chief in all the ways of battle skill’d
            Great in the council, mighty in the field;
            Whose martial arm and steady soul, alone
            Hath made the Britons shake, their navy groan,
            And their proud empire totter to the throne.[107]
- David S. Brooks, An Eulogy on the Death of George Washington Delivered at Guilford,
1800.
Obviously, Washington was admired as a military and political man. The memorial poetry has proven that continually. Did this make him mere mortal in the public’s eyes? The sheer number of times that he was given super human strength and abilities showed that even if he were corporeal, he was greater than all the rest. He had a “steady soul” amongst others who were less steady. He was a man, and all men die, but Washington’s death created a chaotic flurry of memorial poetry.
News of Washington’s death did not reach many areas of the nation until weeks after the fact. There were only a few attendants at the funeral. However, when the people found out about the sad news, grief like no other that had been seen before swept through the nation like a hurricane full of weeping. People came together in meetings to share their sadness with each other.
National, local, and individual Commemorations were held in large numbers throughout the nation. Even though the nation had an official day of morning, many areas continued with their celebrations up to a year afterward after Washington’s death. Thousands of people gathered to walk in, or watch memorial parades that recreated the funeral tour. Empty biers, and white horses with boots turned backwards in the stirrups represented the empty spot that Washington had left in the hearts of the American people.
Columbia’s children knew that Washington was a blessed man. They compared Washington with Elija and Moses. He was a priest and their guardian angel. He was able to do things that only someone only god could do. Americans fell into idol worship and blasphemy. He was not just a man he was like god.
He was one of the greatest men of all time. Americans romanticized the past by comparing Washington with classical heroes and gods. He was better than Caesar. Washington was the demigod, son of Columbia. He was her gift to the rest of her children. He was America’s neo-classic god.
Based upon the commemorative documents, Americans held assemblies that resembled religious conferences. Washington rose to meet God, as Columbia wept at her temple. He had his own effigies with worshiping mourners. Virgin priestesses in white gowns strewed flowers upon biers. The death of Washington created questions of political and religious consequences. Who would help them now that Washington was gone? Was there life after death? Would they be remembered?
Three main categorical doctrines were seen through the use of memento mori poetry. Americans placed Washington in neo-classic, Biblical, and new philosophical roles. Subcategories included nature, saint, gift from god, savior, demigod, pagan-like idol, and god. There were mystical, Romantic, deistic, and Enlightenment thoughts involved as well. Americans put their beliefs, feelings, and their soul into their poetry. Columbia wept for the loss of her dearest son, and her grief turned into its own type of social religion.


Mourning Washington with Supposed Lock of His Hair.

“Mann Page and Anne Corbin Page: Gold Mourning Brooch.” Gold, enamel, and human
hair. 1792. Colonial Williamsburg. Williamsburg VA. Photo by Tom Green. 





[1]Richard Alsop, “A Poem,” (1800) as quoted in Franklin Benjamin Hough,, ed. Washingtoniana, or Memorials of the Death of George Washington. (1865), in Forgotten Books, (Hong Kong: Forgotten Books, 2013), 257.

[2] Gerald E. Kahler,  The Long Farewell: Americans Mourn the Death of George Washington.
(Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press, 2008), 85.

[3] Henry Holcombe, A Sermon Occasioned by the Death of Washington. In Sllis Sandoz,
Political Sermons of the American Founding Era. Vol. 2 (1789-1805). (1991) http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php&title=817&search=%22death+of+washington%22&chapter=69454&layout=html#a_1670898 (accessed October 3, 2013)

[4] William Francis Wilkinson, Prayers for the Dead, for the Use of Members of the Church of England, With a Preface: To which are Added Mediations on the Four Last Things, with Instructions for Using Them, and Other Devotions. (London:  James Toovey, 1845) in Google Books, https://play.google.com/books/reader?printsec=frontcover&output=reader&id=3wMPAAAAIAAJ&pg=GBS.PP7 (accessed November 16, 2013)

[5] Ibid.

The Church of Christ that Wilkinson is referring to here was not a denomination, but the body of Christians throughout history.

[6] Charles O. Jackson, “American Attitudes to Death” in Journal of American Studies, Vol. 11, No. 3. (1977) in JSTOR. (2013) http://0-www.jstor.org.rosi.unk.edu/stable/pdfplus/27553308.pdf?acceptTC=true&
acceptTC=true&jpdConfirm=true (accessed November 16, 2013)

[7] Ibid.

[8] Gary Laderman,. American Attitudes Toward Death, 1799-1883. (Preview) (New Haven,
CT: Yale University, 1996). Google Books. http://books.google.com/books?id=1nsn4u05
CsEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gary+Laderman,+The+Sacred+remains:+American+Attitudes+Toward+Death,+1799-1883+Yale,+1996&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-Y5lUsytLI6I9ASQ64DYDw&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=
onepage&q=Gary%20Laderman%2C%20The%20Sacred%20remains%3A%20American%20Attitudes%20Toward%20Death%2C%201799-1883%20Yale%2C%201996&f=false (accessed October 21, 2013)

[9] Gen. in Wilkinson.
[10] Real George Washington, The. Produced and Directed by Tucker Bowen. 1985. Washington DC: National Geographic Channel. 2011. YouTube. Uploaded Nov 5. 2009. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fCrD15VKgr0 (accessed October 16, 2013)

[11] Joanne Freeman, “Importance of George Washington, The” YaleCourses (2010), (New Haven, CT: Open Yale Courses, Yale University Library, 2011)   http://oyc.yale.edu/history/hist-116/lecture-16 (accessed October 16, 2013)

[12] Mary Higgins Clark, Mount Vernon Love Story: A Novel of George and Martha Washington (Aspire to the Heavens). (New York: Pocket Books, 1969), Kindle Sample Edition. http://www.amazon.com/Mount-Vernon-Love-Story-ebook/dp/B000FC0S00/ref=sr_1_5?s=digital-text&ie=UTF8&qid=1378572228&sr=1-&keywords=martha+washington (accessed September 26, 2013.)

[13] Francis Johnston and William Hamilton, Washingtoniana Containing a Sketch of the Life and Death of the Late Gen. George Washington; With a Collection of Elegant Eulogies, Orations, Poems, &c. Sacred to His Memory. Also, An Appendix Comprising All His Most Valuable Public Papers, and His Last Will and Testament.  (Lancaster: Personally Published, 1802) in Google Books (accessed September 26, 2013)

[14] Hough.

[15] T. Clark, “Washington Memorial Print” Paper and ink. June 1800. in Ketchum House. The
Morgan Library, Warwick Historical Society. New York. 
http://www.warwickhistoricalsociety.org/edu/Ketchumhouse.htm#Artifacts (accessed October 18, 2013)

[16] John. R.C. Carroll, Bishop. “First Bishop Eulogized First President.” (C. 1799), McNamara’s Blog. (2009) http://www.patheos.com/blogs/mcnamarasblog/2009/02/first-bishop-eulogizes-first-president.html (accessed October 16, 2013)

[17] “Tributary Honors at Mount Hope” Dec. 31, 1799. Jenks’s Portland Gazette. January
1800. in “Death of George Washington and Boston Testimonials. History Gallery. N.d. ttp://www.historygallery.com/newspapers/1800washington/1800washington.htm (accessed October 16, 2013)

[18] Julia Reidhead, ed. The Norton Anthology: English Literature. Vol. 2, 8th ed. (New York:
W.W. Norton & Comapany, 2006), 5.

[19] Ann Braude, Radical Spirits: Spiritualism and Women’s Rights in Nineteenth-Century
America, 2nd Ed. (Preview) (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2001) http://books.google.com/books?id=iGP2t8lxsToC&pg=PA215&dq=great+harmonia+david&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OJplUoClFJPW9QSqzIFQ&ved=0CGMQ6AEwCQ#v=snippet&q=death&f=false (accessed October 21, 2013)

[20] Braude.

[21]  Ibid,  120-122.

[22] Reidhead; George Bull, Harmonia Apostolica: or, Two Dissertations; in the Former of Which The Doctrine of St. James on Justification by Works is Explained and Defended: In the Latter, The Agreement of St. Paul with St. James is Clearly Shewn. (New Oxford: John Henry Parker, 1842) http://books.google.com/books?id=PthUAAAAcAAJ&pg=
PA219&dq=great+harmonia+david&hl=en&sa=X&ei=gbVlUtXYDJTs8AT4vICAAw&ved=0CFQQ6AEwBzge#v=onepage&q=death&f=false (Accessed October 21, 2013)

[23] “Poems”

[24] Catherine L. Albanese,  America: Religions and Religion, 3rd ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1999), 124.

[25] Common saying.

[26]“Proceedings in Connecticut”, as quoted in Hough.

[27] Notice that even his funeral was not the last hour of the last day….

[28] Newport Rhode Island Newspaper, (Dec. 22, 1799) in Hough.

[29] Johnston.

[30] William Jackson, “Eulogium on the Character of General Washington; pronounced before the Pennsylvania society of the Cincinnati” in Johnston.

[31] “pier” also spelled pyre is pronounced “peer,” which is a supporting prop carrying a body for the funeral, usually for burning.

[32] Miss Huntly, sang by,”Funeral Honors by Government”,  in Hough.

[33] “The Name ‘Columbia.’,” “Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Vol. II – Second Series. 1885-1886” (1886) Committee Publication. In Google Books. https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=BaxpalYegj0C&printsec=frontcover&output=reader&authuser=0&hl=en&pg=GBS.PR5 (accessed November 18, 2013); Phillis Wheatley, ”Columbia” in “Liberty and Peace” as quoted in Sondra A. O’Neale,  “Phillis Wheatley: 1753-1784”, Poetry Foundation. (2013), http://www.poetryfoundation.org/bio/phillis-wheatley (accessed November 18, 2013)

[34] Author’s speculation based upon history of “Columbia” with many poems leading to ideals of Manifest destiny of American’s special virtues, re-make the west in their own Anglo image, and the irrefutable destiny to accomplish and pursue that way of life. See. Painting by John Gast called “American Progress.” http://picturinghistory.gc.cuny.edu/item.php?item_id=180

[35] Alsop.

The slash was used to indicate same poem, yet numerous lines betwixt, too many to use the periods to generate lines with.

[36] Anacreontic and Philharmonic Societies, “Words of Sacred Music” in Hough.

[37]  “Gen. Washington,” The New York Spectator, Monday, December 23, 1799.

Title created by author using the bolded letters above the poem.

[38]“ Masonic Dirge” in Hough.

[39] Philippe Aries, The Hour of Our Death. trans Helen Weaver. (New York: Vintage Books,
1982), 309.

[40] Newman, Parades and the Politics of the Street: Festive Culture in the Early American Republic. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997), 69.

The Cult of Washington was an informal group of men who held Washington’s Republican ideals with passionate and confronatational zeal.

[41] Laurel Thatcher Ulrich. A Midwife’s Tale: The Life of Martha Ballard, Based on Her Diary, 1785-1812. (New York: Vintage Books, 1990), 32.

Martha Ballard was a respected midwife who was the local healer as well as baby deliverer.;


[42] Braude.

[43] Ibid.

[44] Wilkinson.

[45] “Mighty Chief! Illustrious Patriot! Benevolent Sage!” in Johnston.

The word “his” in this line meant George Washington.

[46] “Strew, Virgins, they Cypress”, Original music by Johann Heinrich Rolle, n.d.  (ca. 1800) as quoted in “Weeping and Mourning: Funeral Dirges in Honor of General Washington” in Journal of the American Musicological Society, Vol. 31, No. 2. (1978) in JSTOR, (2013)

[47] “Washinton at Trenton” in Johnston.

[48] Sanuel Sower, The Washingtoniana: Containing A Biographical Scetch of the Late Gen. George Washington, with Various Outlines of His Character, From the Pens of Different Eminent Writers, in Europe and America; And An Account of the Various Funeral Honors Devoted to His Memory. To Which are Annexed His Will and Schedule of His Property. (Baltimore: Samuel Sower, 1800) in Google Books  http://books.google.com/books?id=_T8FAAAAYAAJ&q=poem#v=onepage&q=white&f=false (accessed November 16, 2013)

A festoon is a chain of flowers – garland - used to decorate themselves, others, or buildings.

[49] “Angels Ever Bright and Fair” Sheet Music, 1800. Saint Paul’s Church of New York, New York as quoted in Sterling E. Murray, “Weeping and Mourning: Funeral Dirges in Honor of General Washington” in Journal of the American Musicological Society, Vol 31, No. 2. (1978), in JSTOR, (2013)

[50] Reverend Br. Dr. Walter in Hough.

[51] Geo. W. Bethune, “Invocation,” Lays of Love and Faith with Other Fugitive Poems,  (Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1847) in GoogleBooks. http://books.google.com/books?id=bQE8AAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=white&f=false (accessed November 16, 2013)

[52] Charles A. Mills,  How Martha Washington Lived: 18th Century Customs (Kindle Edition)
N.d. (accessed September 26, 2013.)

[53] Clark.

[54] Richard Alsop, “Sacred to the Memory of George Washington, Late President of the United States and Commander-in-Chief of the Armies of the United States.”, “Dedicated to Mrs. Martha Washington. As quoted in Hough;

[55] John Lathrop, “Monody” in Hough.

[56] John Lovett, “A Tribute to Washington.” (1800) in Hough.

[57] Wallace, “Words of Wallace,” (ca. 1799-1800) as quoted in Benson John Lossing,. The Home of Washington or Mount Vernon and Its Associations, Historical, Biographical, and Pictorial. (1871),  (Hong Kong: Forgotten Books, 2013) http://www.forgottenbooks.org/readbook/The_Home_of_Washington_or_Mount_Vernon_and_Its_Associations_Historical_1000324791#297 (accessed October 28, 2013)


[58] Thomas Paine, “An Eulogy on the Life of General George Washington” (1800), as quoted in
“Eulogies and Orations on the Life and Death of General George Washington, First President
of the United States”. N.d. in On the Life and Death of General George Washington, First President of the United States of America. (Boston: Manning & Loring, 1800) https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=fzUFAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&output=reader&authuser=0&hl=en&pg=GBS.PP21
 (accessed October 28, 2013)

[59] Exodus, 3:8.

[60] Thomas Paine, “Ode”, as quoted in Hough

[61] Ibid.

[62] “A Biography of Thomas Paine (1737-1809)” n.d. as quoted in American History: From Revolution to Reconstruction and Beyond. N.d. http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/biographies/thomas-paine/ (accessed November 16, 2013)

Thomas Paine, born in England, is most famous for writing Common Sense, which argued that America’s annexation from England was immanent. Government should be for the people, as simple as possible,  and continually regulated. Later, Pain would be considered heretical because of his deist reasoning

[63] Common saying.

[64] Charles Caldwell, “Extract from an Elegiac poem, on the death of general George Washington,” as quoted in Hough.

[65] John Lovett, “Star-Deck’d Standards,” (ca. 1799-1800), in Hough.

Congressman Lovett wrote this poem anonymously, but contemporaries gave credit of authorship to him due to style and wording. Lovett purchased land, laid out, and created the Perrysburgh, Ohio.  - Hough.

[66] Title created by author using first words in poem due to no name in document.
[67] James M. Washington Stewart, The Hero and Statesman. Eulogy. (Washington, D.C.:
Personally Published, 1888) http://archive.org/stream/washingtonheros00stew#
page/n5/mode/2up (accessed September 26, 2013)

[68] Olilver Holden, “Mount Vernon” (Complete) as quoted in Murray, “Weeping…”
[69] James Baldwin, Old Greek Stories, (no location: Publish This, LLC – Publisher, 2013). In  Google Books. https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=xWB7AAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&output=reader&authuser=0&hl=en&pg=GBS.PP1 (accessed November 18, 2013)

Apollo wore a crown of laurel leaves in memory of Daphne, his love that was repulsed by his sight. Cupid shot his love arrow to Apollo, and a led one to Daphne. He was insanely in love and pursued her mercilessly.  She tried to get away, and as Apollo reached for her, he found he was holding a tree trunk of a laurel tree instead of the maiden.

[70] “Mount Vernon” in “Weeping”

[71] John Aikins, “Tribute to Washington,” (ca. 1799-1800), as quoted in Hough

[72] “New Year’s Address of a Hartford Paper” (1800) in Hough.

[73] Christie Finn, “Oliver Holden: About” n.d. in Song of America. N.d. http://www.songofamerica.net/cgi-bin/iowa/composer/53.html (accessed November 16, 2013)

[74] Anastasis, apse fresco in the Parekklesion of the Church of Christ in Chora, (ca. 1310-1320) Constantinople (Instabul), Turkey, ca. 1310-1320. in Fred S. Kleiner, Gardner's Art Through the Ages: The Western Perspective, 13th ed., Vol. 1. (Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2010), 256.; Titian, Assumption of the Virgin, (1516-1515), Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, Venice. in Fred S. Kleiner, Gardner's Art Through the Ages: The Western Perspective, 13th ed., Vol. 2. (Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2010), 607.

[75] Oliver Holden, “From Vernon’s Mount Behold the Hero Rise” (1794) as quoted in Oliver Ayer Roberts, History of the Military Company of the Massachusetts, Now Called The Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company of Massachusetts, Vol II – 1738-1821,  (Boston: Alfred Mudge & Son, Printers, 1897) in Google Books. http://books.google.com/books?id=VS24OKpV-9gC&pg=PA336&lpg=PA336&dq=%22mercer's+hand%22&source=bl&ots=7O17trQidT&sig=C3PZjGVtd3hlUw_piw0mRD565ck&hl=en&sa=X&ei=c7SJUri6KMnOkQfW9YHgAw&ved=0CE4Q6AEwBzgK#v=onepage&q=%22mercer's%20hand%22&f=false (accessed November 16, 2013)

[76] Donovan Penaluna, “Francis Adrian Van Der Kemp (1752 – 1829)” as quoted in Geni: A My Heritage Company. (2013) http://www.geni.com/people/Fran%C3%A7ois-Adriaan-van-der-Kemp/6000000017638810727 (accessed November 16, 2013)

[77] Notice the capital “N”, again, another example of a capital as in God, Christ, Him, etc.

[78] The second portion of the poem seems to have made Van Der Kemp more aware of his reference to God without capatilizing “his” throughout. However, when looking at the words of the second part as a whole, there is a direct Christ-like, or God, the Son type of reference.

[79] Van Der Kemp, Francis Adrian. Eulogy of George Washington: Pronounced at
Oldenbarneveld, (Oneida County, New York, February 22, 1800.) in Google Books.  http://books.google.com/books?id=tIr4svZajpEC&pg=PA7&dq=Van+Der+Kemp+Eulogy+of+George+Washington:+Pronounced+at++Oldenbarneveld,+Oneida+County,+New+York&hl=en&sa=X&ei=py6KUrOqAYWPkAeN9oDgDQ&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Van%20Der%20Kemp%20Eulogy%20of%20George%20Washington%3A%20Pronounced%20at%20%20Oldenbarneveld%2C%20Oneida%20County%2C%20New%20York&f=false (accessed September 15, 2013)

[80] Matthew 2, (New International Version Bible, 2011)

[81] Wallace.

[82] Notice the capital “H” in Hero, as in “Him” referring to God.

[83] Donald N. Moran, “Major General Richard Montgomery” n.d. in Sons of Liberty Chapter: Sons of the American Revolution. http://www.revolutionarywararchives.org/montgomery.html (accessed  November 16, 2013).

Major General Richard Montgomery was born in Ireland and graduated from Trinity College in Dublin. He joined the 17th Regiment of Foot soldiers under General James Wolfe. He was stationed in New York at the end of the French and Indian War. He fell in love with the area, apparently because he returned to England for a short time, but then migrated back to the colony to make it his home. Montgomery was considered the first of the Revolutionary War hero’s to many people. He was the one in charge of the failed attach on Quebec, yet his death there was felt strongly by everyone in the Second Continental Congress. In this line , Montgomery is the godlike entity.;

[84] Sower  “Mature in Years, Covered with Glory, and Rich in the Affections of the American People,” (1799) as quoted in Sower. (Poem quoted within the main piece so that there are different footnotes, but only one in the Bibliography.

[85] Albanese, 121.

[86] Henry Holcombe, “A Sermon Occasioned by the Death of Washington”, (1800) as quoted in Henry Ware, A Sermon, Occasioned by the Death of George Washington, Supreme Commander of the American Forces During the Revolutionary War: First President and Late Lieutenant General and Commander in Chief of the Armies of the United States of America; Who Departed this Life at Mount Vernon, December 14, 1799, in the 68th Year of His Age. Delivered in Hingham, by Request of the Inhabitants. January 6, 1800. (Boston: Samuel Hall, 1800.) https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=duUrAQAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&output=reader&authuser=0&hl=en&pg=GBS.PA3 (accessed October 28, 2013)

[87] Benjamin Carr, “Dead March and Monody” Sheet Music. (1799.)Lutheran Church of
Philadelphia, Philadelphia. in John Tasker Howard, “The Music of George Washington’s Time”, AmericanRevolution.Org. N.d. http://www.americanrevolution.org/washingtonsmusic.html (accessed October 18, 2013)

[88] “Addison’s Campaign”, ca. 1799-1800. in Johnston.

[89] John S. Gardner, “Hymn,” (1800), in Hough.

[90]  George III is being compared with Attila, the Hun and the ruination of Asia compared with the idea of ruination of America if they had stayed English colonies.

[91] Alsop.

[92]“ Parricidal” is someone who murders their parents. Current tense “parricide” is to murder a parent, mother, father.

[93]  Alsop, “Extract from a poem, Sacred to the Memory of George Washington,” in Johnston.

[94] John Stoughton, History of Religion in England from the Opening of the Long Parliament to 1850, Vol. VI: Church in the Georgian Era, 4th ed. (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1901), in Google Books, https://play.google.com/books/reader?printsec=frontcover&output=reader&id=eskYAQAAIAAJ&pg=GBS.PR4 (accessed November 16, 2013).

[95] George Lunt as quoted in Benson John Lossing, The Home of Washington or Mount Vernon and Its Associations, Historical, Biographical, and Pictorial. (1871), Reprint. (Hong Kong: Forgotten Books, 2013.) http://www.forgottenbooks.org/readbook/The_Home_of_Washington_or_Mount_Vernon_and_Its_Associations_Historical_1000324791#297 (accessed October 28, 2013)


[96] Title created by author due to no title by Lossing. The title created from last three words of the paragraph before the poem. “and, the glowing words of Lunt should express the sentiment of every American:”

[97] “Hymm Composed and Sung at Cambridge), (ca. 1799-1800) in Hough.

[98] Edwin Gaustad and Leigh Schmidt. The Religious History of America: The heart of the
American Story from Colonial Times to Today. (New York: Harper Collins, 2002), 126.

[99] Charles L. Batten, Jr. Pleasurable Instruction: Form and Convention in Eighteenth-Century Travel Literature. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978). In Google Books. http://books.google.com/books?id=BGFuSbuDCSQC&pg=PA98&lpg=PA98&dq=%22rapturous+response+to+nature%22&source=bl&ots=Br60LcKKUM&sig=eNDyIEhMFhiL_iYmiVNZjmjlSts&hl=en&sa=X&ei=DXmKUo3XMZHGkQff94CwBg&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22rapturous%20response%20to%20nature%22&f=false (accessed November 18, 2013).
[100] Reidhead.

[101] Ibid.

[102] “Alexandria, VA: Proceedings in Virginia” 1800.as quoted in Hough.

[103] George K. Jackson, “Dirge for General Washington (Complete)” Sheet Music. Ca. As quoted in Murray, “Weeping and Mourning” (This is second citation this particular dirge, thus the shortened version. Inclusion of title was because Murray has two pieces represented.)

[104]  David Waldstreicher,  In the Midst of Perpetual Fetes: The Making of American Nationalism, 1776-1820. (Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 1996),
191.

[105] Sewall.

[106] Jonathan Mitchel Sewall, “Men, Brethren, and Fathers!,” (1799), in “Eulogies and Orations on the Life and Death of General George Washington, First President of the United States”. N.d. in On the Life and Death of General George Washington, First President of the United States of America. (Boston: Manning & Loring, 1800.) https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=fzUFAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&output
=reader&authuser=0&hl=en&pg=GBS.PP21 (accessed October 28, 2013)

[107] David S. Brooks, An Eulogy on the Death of George Washington Delivered at Guilford
(February 22, 1800) Branford, CT: The Blackstone Memorial Library, 1920. http://archive.org/stream/eulogyondeathofg00broo#page/n5/mode/2up
 (accessed September 26, 2013)


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for class at University of Nebraska - Kearney

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